1
On writing a paper
Psychological
perspectives on
People and
Environment Autumn
2011
Guidelines for project paper,
Psychological perspectives on
People and Environment
Autumn 2011
Requirements
Complete a written assignment with deadline
January 13 , 2012
The theme/purpose of the paper must be
approved by the teacher responsible for the
course before November 18, 2011 by
sending a short e-mail to
einar.strumse@hil.no
2
Specific requirements
The paper should be written individually or in pairs
In the latter case, students must specify in the
preface of the paper how they have divided the work
between them, indicating both primary responsibility
for the different sections of the paper, and sections
on which they worked together.
The student selects theme and purpose for the
paper, chosen from within the required readings for
the course.
In addition to using the required literature, the
student must find additional literature. A minimum of
two scientific articles from peer reviewed journals
must form the basis for the paper.
The paper should consist of approx. 3500 words / 10
pages with 1 ½ line spacing in A4 standard format.
Specific requirements
The paper should have a title page with the title at the top, the student's name at the
centre of the page, and the name of the institution at the bottom centre.
The title page is followed by Table of Contents, Abstract (150 words or less), the
body (text) of the paper (12 pitch, Times New Roman font. References, Tables,
Figures, and Appendixes. Tables and figures may be composed in any font and font
size, so long as the result is readable.
Citation of references in the text should follow this format: Henry (1998), or (Henry
and Wright, 1997) or (Henry et al., 1996) or (Henry, 1995, 1998; Wright, 1994). The
list of references should be arranged alphabetically by author. All authors of a work
must be listed (see list of readings).
Tables and figures should be clear and concise and should be able to “stand alone”,
i.e. complete headings and footnotes should be used to clarify entries. All tables and
figures should be referred to in the text.
Specific requirements
The title page is followed by Table of Contents, Abstract (150
words or less), the body (text) of the paper (12 pitch, Times
New Roman font. References, Tables, Figures, and
Appendixes. Tables and figures may be composed in any font
and font size, so long as the result is readable.
Citation of references in the text should follow this format:
Henry (1998), or (Henry and Wright, 1997) or (Henry et al.,
1996) or (Henry, 1995, 1998; Wright, 1994). The list of
references should be arranged alphabetically by author. All
authors of a work must be listed (see list of readings).
Tables and figures should be clear and concise and should be
able to “stand alone”, i.e. complete headings and footnotes
should be used to clarify entries. All tables and figures should
be referred to in the text.
3
The paper should have the
following structure (minimum
requirements!)
Introduction
– Presentation of and focusing on theme and
purpose/research questions, definitions of central concepts
and a brief description of the logical structure of the paper
(method)
Main part:
– Presentation of theory and empirical material (if included)
– Discussion
Conclusion
– Summary and brief concluding remarks related of the initial
purpose and research questions.
– The paper must satisfy the APA requirements for the use of
references in the text and in the reference list
Submission
Deadline for submission of the paper is
January 13, 2012
The main considerations that
contribute to the appraisal of a paper
are these:
* Is the theme/research problem stated explicitly and is it well
founded?
* Are the methods chosen appropriate to the problem?
* Are the descriptions of theory, (and if empirical work: data and
results of analyses) sufficient?
* Is there a sufficient basis for the conclusions?
* Is the discussion satisfactory?
* Are the formal aspects of the paper (writing style, etc.)
satisfactory?
* Is the work sufficiently comprehensive?
* Is the paper relevant to environmental psychology?
* Is the work mainly that of the student?
4
The introduction
Is introducing the reader to your topic, but the introduction is also supposed to
limit it. This limitation happens when you define your research topic. Your
research topic could very well be formulated as a question.
The introduction must include:
– a summary of your paper
– a presentation of your research topic
The introduction should also include:
– reasons why you chose your research topic
– a short introduction to the topic you have chosen
– definitions/clarification of concepts
Your paper should have a front page. The front page should include the title,
subject code and name (or student identification number). You should check
with your department whether there are guidelines for designing front pages.
Recommended structure might vary between departments. We recommend
that you contact your department to ask for further instructions
The discussion
The largest and most extensive part of your paper. Your type of
research topic will decide which elements you should include
in your discussion. Therefore, you should only regard the
overview below as guiding when it comes to writing the
discussion.
Dependent upon your research topic, the discussion should
include:
– an introduction to the theory on the field
– an introduction to previous research
– an empirical part with presentation of your research method
– a statement of how you have collected your information
– an analysis of the collected information
– a statement of strength and weaknesses of previous research,
your own research method, information, etc.
The conclusion must include:
a discussion of the results in general
a discussion of the results in relation to your
research topic
a conclusion
5
You are expected to analyse, debate and
discuss one or more phenomena.
This is how Webster's Dictionary defines some of these concepts:
– To debateTo discuss the pros and cons, to argue, to think about carefully.
– To discussTo examine in detail or by disputation, to debate, to reason
upon, to investigate.
– To analyse To break down into components or essential features.
An analysis An examination of the component parts of a subject
Empiricism: Pursuit of knowledge by observation and experiment.
– Theory
1. A doctrine or scheme of things which terminates in speculation or
contemplation, without a view to practice; hypothesis; speculation.
2. An exposition of the general or abstract principles of any science; as the
theory of music.
Use sources in your work
You must actively search for and use knowledge and
information about your topic.
A large part of what you write will be based on other authors':
– ideas
– arguments
– reasoning
– theories
– collected data
– empirical findings, etc
When using another author's work in your own, you must
always write where you found this information.
Referring to sources
To declare where you have found your information,
that is, which sources you have used, is called
referring.
A reference consists of two elements:
reference in the text
listing in the reference list
In this module you will learn both how to give
references in the text and how to write the reference
list.
6
Reasons why you have to name your
sources
The correct use of sources shows that you:
– recognise other authors' work
– have read literature about your topic
– place your work in a larger academic context
– master the technique of naming sources
Correct use of sources also makes the reader capable of:
– identifying and retrieving the sources you have used
– identifying your own paragraphs, ideas and conclusions
Incorrect or lacking use of sources is called plagiarism.
Plagiarism results in you failing your paper and a potential loss
of right to sit your exam.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism means that you publish other people's work as your
own. Plagiarism is regarded as cheating and is strictly
forbidden. Plagiarism or cheating results in you failing your
paper, and you may be expelled from the university for a longer
or shorter period.
Remember, it is not allowed to either copy from books,
articles, etc nor to use the "cut and paste" method with
electronic resources (e-books, electronic articles, the Internet,
etc) without writing where you found the information, that is referring
to the source.
When should you name your sources?
It may be difficult to know when to name your sources, but as a
general rule we could say that you should name your sources when
you:
– use quotes
– paraphrase, that is use indirect quotes
– refer to
It is not necessary to name sources when writing about something that
is publicly known and accepted.
Example: It is not necessary to name sources if you write that Norway
voted 'No' in the EU referendum in 1994. However, if you want to state
how many per cent voted 'no' and how the 'no' votes were distributed
in the population, or if you want to analyse the causes and
consequences of Norway's 'no', you must name your sources.
7
References in the text
Quotes
A quote is a word by word rendering of something somebody else has
written.
When using quotes, you should mark these in a way that makes it
easy for the reader to see what is a quote and what is your own text.
Quotes on max. 3 lines are marked by inverted commas (before and
after). Name of author, year and page (APA) or a serial number
(Vancouver) are written in parenthesis immediately after the quote.
Quotes over 3 lines are written as separate paragraphs with indent,
without inverted commas. Name of author, year and page (APA) or a
serial number (Vancouver) are written in parenthesis immediately after
the quote.
If you include the author's name in your own text, you only have to
state year and page (APA) or a serial number (Vancouver) in
parenthesis after the quote.
Paraphrasing
A paraphrase is a rephrasing of the original
text. Paraphrases are also called indirect
quotes. It may be easier to use paraphrases
instead of quotes because they can be
adjusted to fit your own text.
References
In scientific texts you should try to avoid
using general terms such as
many/several/some
researchers/studies/reports, etc. You need to
specify which studies and which
researchers.
When you want to refer to other researchers'
work, without using quotes or paraphrasing,
you must use references.
8
Special rules in APA
If you use the APA style, you must note the following:
If a source has more than 6 authors, you only name the first, followed by 'et al'.
Several publications by the same author from the same year are separated by using 'a', 'b',
'c', etc. after the year
When using secondary sources, you must name your source and state the quote from the
secondary source
If a piece of work does not have a physical person as its author, or the author is
anonymous, you have to state the title's first words and the year. Titles of articles or
chapters are written in inverted commas, titles of books, brochures or reports are written in
italics.
Publications with several authors that are being referred to several times:
– 2 authors: name both authors every time you quote them. Example: (Furseth & Everett 1997) or
Furseth and Everett (1997)
– 3, 4 or 5 authors: name all authors only the first time you quote them. Later you use the first author's
surname followed by 'et al'. Example: Ramaekers, Berghausb, Laarc and Drummer (2004); later
Ramaekers et al (2004)
– 6 or more authors: only name the first author's surname followed by 'et al'. Example: Cheng et al
(2004)
Information about how to write references in text and in reference lists with the APA style is
taken from APA Style.org (2003) and Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (2002).
A reference list is the same as a literature list. It is
an alphabetical list of all the sources you have
referred to in your paper.
In the APA style you write the reference list alphabetically
according to surname, and then by year, in falling order.
When writing a reference list in APA style, you need
to remember the following:
arrange your list alphabetically according to surname
use double line spacing
use hanging indent on the second and the following lines in a
reference
use & before the last author if there are two or more
only use the name of the author first mentioned followed by 'et
al.' if there are 6 or more writers
use italics for:
– titles of journals and volumes
– book titles
– conference names
start the reference list on a new page. Use 'Reference List' or
'Literature List' as the heading
9
Books
Surname, Initials. (Year). Book title in italics (Edition
- if available). Place: Publisher.
Bick, J. (2000). 101 Thing You Need To Know about
Internet Law. New York: Three Rivers Press.
[Online]. Downloaded on 30 March 2004, from
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ntnu/.
Dybvig, D. D., & Dybvig, M. (2003). Det tenkende
mennesket. Filosofi- og vitenskapshistorie med
vitenskapsteori (2. utgave). Trondheim: Tapir
akademisk forlag
Anthologies
Anthologies are books with one editor and where the chapters
are written by several different authors.
Surname, Initials. (Year). Title of chapter. In Initial. Surname
(Editor), Book title in italics (Edition, page). Place: Publisher.
Beizer, J. L., & Timiras, M. L. (1994). Pharmacology and drug
management in the elderly. In P.S. Timirad (Ed.), Physiological
basis of aging and geriatrics. (2. utg., ss. 279-284). Boca
Raton: CRC Press.
Fermann, G. (Ed.). (1997). International politics of climate
change: key issues and critical actors. Oslo: Scandinavian
University Press.
Articles in journals
Surname, Initials., & Surname, Initials. (Year). Title of article. Title of
journal in italics, volume in italics, (edition), page.
Kwan, I., & Mapstone, J. (2004). Visibility aids for pedestrians and
cyclists: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Accident
Analysis & Prevention, 36(3), 305-312.
Kwan, I., & Mapstone, J. (2004). Visibility aids for pedestrians and
cyclists: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials [Electronic
version]. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36(3), 305-312.
Wade, T. G., Riitters, K.H., Wickham, J.P., & Jones, K.B. (2003).
Distribution and causes of global forest fragmentation. Conservation
Ecology 7(2): 7. Downloaded 29 March 2004,
http://www.consecol.org/vol7/iss2/art7.
10
Conference papers
Unpublished papers:
Surname, Initials. (Year, month). Title of paper. Paper
presented at Name of conference in italics , place.
Published papers:
Author, Initials. (Year). Title of article. In: Surname, Initial.
(Editor). Title of conference in italics, (page). Place: Publisher.
Nørvåg, K. (2003). Space-Efficient Support for Temporal Text
Indexing in a Document Archive Context. In Koch, T., &
Sølvberg I. (Red.), Research and Advanced Technology for
Digital Libraries, 7th European Conference, ECDL 2003
Trondheim, Norway, (ss. 511-522). Berlin: Springer.
Articles from newspapers or magazines
Surname, Initials. (Year, date). Title of article. Title of
newpaper in italics, page.
Ringen, S. (2004, 25 March). La ikke Erna Solberg
rasere det lokale folkestyre. Aftenposten, p. 10.
Grosh, A., & Graff, J. (2004, 22. mars). A strike at
Europe’s heart. Time magazine, pp. 22-28.
Theses and dissertations
Surname, Initials. (Year). Title of thesis or
dissertation in italics. Institution,
Place.Mathisen, C. (2003). Effekter av UVstråling
på embryonalutvikling, vekst og
morfologi hos Daphnia magna. Upublisert
hovedoppgave, Biologisk institutt,
Universitetet i Oslo, Oslo
11
Public information
Author/editor. (Year). Title in italics. (series).
Place: Publisher.
Arbeids- og administrasjonsdepartementet.
(2004). Arbeidslivsutvalget. Et arbeidsliv for
trygghet, inkludering og vekst. (NOU 2004:
5). Oslo: Statens forvaltningstjeneste.
Web pages
Author/editor, Initials. (Year). Title in italics. Downloaded day, month, year, from
http:// ...
Fugelsnes, E. (2004). Oppvarmet støv kan gi økte helseplager. Lastet ned 01.
april 2004, fra http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/mars/1079517069.32
Web pages without authors
Title of article/page. (Year). Downloaded day, month, year, from http:// ...
Web pages without publication date
Author, Initials. (n.d.) Title of article/page in italics. Downloaded day, month,
year, from http:// ...
Homepages
Organisation. (Updated date, year). Downloaded day, month, year, from http://
...
Example of reference list written in APA
style:
Beizer, J. L., & Timiras, M. L. (1994). Pharmacology and drug management in the elderly. In P.S. Timirad
(Editor), Physiological basis of aging and geriatrics. (2nd edition, pp. 279-284). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Bick, J. (2000). 101 Thing You Need to Know about Internet Law. New York: Three Rivers Press. [Online].
Downloaded 30 March, 2004, from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ntnu/.
Dybvig, D. D., & Dybvig, M. (2003). Det tenkende mennesket. Filosofi- og vitenskapshistorie med
vitenskapsteori (2nd edition). Trondheim: Tapir akademisk forlag.
Fermann, G. (Editor). (1997). International politics of climate change: key issues and critical actors. Oslo:
Scandinavian University Press.
Grosh, A., & Graff, J. (2004, 22 March). A strike at Europe’s heart. Time magazine, pp. 22-28.
Kwan, I., & Mapstone, J. (2004). Visibility aids for pedestrians and cyclists: a systematic review of
randomised controlled trials. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 36(3), 305-312.
Mathisen, C. (2003). Effekter av UV-stråling på embryonalutvikling, vekst og morfologi hos Daphnia
magna. Upublisert hovedoppgave, Biologisk institutt, Universitetet i Oslo, Oslo.
Nørvåg, K. (2003). Space-Efficient Support for Temporal Text Indexing in a Document Archive Context. In
Koch, T., & Sølvberg I. (Red), Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, 7th European
Conference, ECDL 2003 Trondheim, Norway, (ss. 511-522). Berlin: Springer.
Ringen, S. (2004, 25 March). La ikke Erna Solberg rasere det lokale folkestyre. Aftenposten, p.10.
Please note that the reference list always begins on a new page. You should also remember the double line
spacing and indent on the second and following lines in each reference.
12
Checklist before submission
Did you:
– Answer your research question?
– Complete all arguments?
– define or clarify scientific concepts?
– Correct all printing errors?
– Include all the sources you have been using?
– Set up the reference list correctly?
Subject, theme and problem formulation
Subject: This is the course you are enrolled in
A subject is divided into a large number of themes.
Some of them are only covered in the readings,
whereas others are also lectured upon. A theme may
be divided into subthemes
A problem formulation is identical with a research
question. It may be formulated as a question but it
does not have to!
Problem formulation
A universty or college paper is based upon a
Problem formulation: This is the research
question you are supposed to examine in your
paper.
The process of identifying a good problem
formulation may at first seem difficult. A couple of
techniques that may be helpful are:
Brainstorming
Using a mind map
13
Brainstorming
Write down themes from readings and
lectures. Perhaps you will be able to find a
couple of themes that are not discussed in
the readings, but that still are relevant for
your theme. The theme you choose should
be:
Interesting
A theme you already know something about
Working with a theme using a mind map
Using a mind map implies dividing a theme
into several subthemes which in turn are
divided into a new set of subthemes.
A mind map may also uncover interesting
connections among subthemes.
The problem formulation
Problem formulations are the questions you ask and try to answer
through study of the literature. Thes questions must be described and
discussed in the paper. The problem formulation is in most cases a
question about relations among concepts (variables).
Examples:
– Which factors influence the development of antisocial behaviour?
– Biological and social risk factors for the development of antisocial
behaviour
– How important are attitudes and values for environmentally responsible
behaviour?
After having worked with your pasper for a while you will probably
discover aspects you did not think about at the start. That is why you
should be ready to revise your problem formulation!
14
On the appropriate sources of
information
Books
– Academic books are important because they are both broad
and deep. A book chapter may be exactly what you need to
write a short paper or an oral presentation
– When you need a lot of information about a theme, person,
event
– To situate your theme in a larger context
– To learn about how your theme has been approached by
several reseachers
Academic journals
Articles in academic journals
– are focusing in detail on one specific theme or
problem
– Contain recent information and addresses
students and scientists
Use articles from academic journals when
you want to find:
– new and older information on your theme
– References to other relevant research
Bakground information/Reference
literature
Start in dictionaries etc within the field
Reference books contain specialized information and
bibliographies (lists of books, articles etc), where you may find
more on the theme
Background information may help you understand how a
theme is divided, making ot easier to focus on your theme
When?
– When you need background information
– When trying to find central concepts and important milestones etc
– When your theme is to big and you need help to narrow the scope
15
Web sites
This type of information varies greatly from international
top level research results to biased or misguiding material.
The amount of scientific information varies, depending upon the
theme. It is easier to find reliable and relevant material using
other sources, as the content of books and journal articles in
most case is not available free of charge on the internet
If you need access to the content of books and journal articles,
you must use databases found in university and college
libraries. There is access from the library website.
Use Internet when:
– You need recent information, such as newspaper articles
– You need information on enterprises or organisations
– You need government publications etc
Searching
Find good words and concepts before your
start the searchf
Truncating or word abbrevation is effective
– ? and * is commonly used
Databases
Library catalogues
Reference databases
Facts databases: definitions , statistics
Full text databases: ISI
16
Reasons why you should not use the web
as your only source
Amount of information: Only a small part
of the information in the world is found on the
web!
Author: Anyone can publish on the web
Payment: Not all the information is freee.
Organisation: The information on the web
is not organised
Stability: Most of the info on the web is not
permanent
Important psychology databases:
PsycNet: Both PsycArticles (fulltext articles)
and PsycINFO
Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
Collections: ca 550 fulltext journals.
PsycINFO
MedlinePubMed (Medline)