DEPOMMIER 63
Tropical Ecology 44(1): 63-71, 2003 ISSN 0564-3295
© International Society for Tropical Ecology
The tree behind the forest: ecological and economic importance of
traditional agroforestry systems and multiple uses of trees in India
DENIS DEPOMMIER*
French Institute of Pondicherry, 11 Saint Louis Street, Pondicherry - 605 001
Abstract: Traditionally, agroforestry is extensively practiced in India, in the form of the
shifting agriculture, a variety of cereal cropping systems, home garden systems, traditional
plantation systems, etc. In recent times, many of these agroforestry systems have started
breaking down for a variety of reasons. In many situations, high diversity based agroforestry
systems have been replaced by low diversity simplified cash crop systems, and this is
questionable in terms of sustainability. The paper argues for traditional ecological knowledge
based approaches linked with provision for multiple value non-wood products. It is concluded
that gaps in the knowledge of multi-purpose trees (MPTs) and systems functioning needs to be
better understood for sustainable agroforestry.
Resumen: Tradicionalmente la agroforestería se practica de manera extensa en la India,
en la forma de agricultura transhumante, una variedad de sistemas de cultivo de cereales,
sistemas de huertos familiares, sistemas tradicionales de plantaciones, etc. En épocas recientes
muchos de estos sistemas agroforestales han comenzado a desintegrarse debido a una variedad
de razones. En muchas situaciones, los sistemas agroforestales basados en una alta diversidad
han sido reemplazados por sistemas de cultivos comerciales, simplificados y de baja diversidad,
y esto es cuestionable en términos de la sostenibilidad. En el artículo se argumenta a favor del
conocimiento ecológico tradicional con base en enfoques vinculados con la disponibilidad de
productos no maderables de valor múltiple. Se concluye que todavía existen lagunas en el
conocimiento de los árboles de uso múltiple (AUM) y que el funcionamiento de los sistemas
necesita ser comprendido mucho mejor en bien de la agroforestería sostenible.
Resumo: Tradicionalmente, a agro-silvicultura é extensivamente praticada na Índia, sob
forma de cultura itinerante, uma variedade de sistema cerealífero, sistemas de hortas caseiras,
sistemas tradicionais de plantação, etc. Recentemente, muitos desse sistemas agroflorestais
têm vindo a ser desfeitos por um conjunto variado de razões. Em muitas situações, sistemas
agroflorestais fortemente diversificados têm vindo a ser substituídos por sistemas de culturas
comerciais de baixa diversidade e simplificados, o que é questionável em termos de
sustentabilidade. Este artigo argumenta para a necessidade de abordagens com base no
conhecimento ecológico tradicional ligado à provisão para múltiplos valores de produtos não
lenhosos. Conclui-se que as lacumas no conhecimento das árvores de uso múltiplo (MOTs) e das
necessidades de funcionamento dos sistemas necessitam ser mais aprofundadas para a
sustentabilidade da agro-silvicultura.
Key words: Agroforestry systems, coffee based system, homegarden, mangroves, multipurpose trees,
social forestry, sustainable development, traditional ecological knowledge.
*Phone: 91-413-2334168/2222497, fax: 91-413-2339534, e-mail: denis.depommier@cirad.fr
64 AGROFORESTRY AND MULTIPURPOSE TREES
Introduction
Agroforestry, the combination of woody
perennials with crops and/or animals on the same
unit of land management, is an age-old practice in
India. Being a traditional land use system able to
satisfy a large diversity of socio-economic needs in
a sustainable way and in many different agroecological
conditions, agroforestry is found from
north to south India through hundreds of systems
and an equivalent number of management
practices of multipurpose trees, shrubs and palms.
Unfortunately, agroforestry systems and
practices are little known in terms of functioning
and dynamics. Besides their descriptive
knowledge, the economic and environmental
importance of associated trees is rarely assessed.
Finally, the potential roles these "trees out of the
forests" can play in soil fertility maintenance,
water conservation, tenural issues, landscaping
and multi-production (food, fodder, fuel wood,
timber, medicines, etc.) is clearly not fully used.
From a research and development point of view,
little progress has been made in the study and
promotion of agroforestry and other tree-based
systems, or in giving this domain of study a
comprehensive understanding, at the interface
between forestry, agriculture, livestock rearing,
and social sciences.1 Will the trees behind the
forests be seen once the latter have disappeared?
From ancient times to the green
revolution
Secular uses of trees
From a historical perspective, many current
multipurpose trees such as Prosopis cineraria, a
legume tree species extensively grown in Rajasthan
and Gujarat to maintain soil fertility and feed
livestock during the dry season, or Ficus religiosa,
well-known in tree worship, are mentioned in ancient
literature (Rig Veda, Atharva Veda) and
other Indian scriptures (Pathak et al. 2000). Neem
(Azadirachta indica), the famous medicinal, insecticidal
and pesticidal tree, is part of many folklores
in the dryland areas of India and is quoted in Ayurvedic
literature (Rawat 1995; Sidhu 1995;
Sreekantaiah unpublished). In Tamil Nadu, the
palm tree Nera (Borassus flabellifer) has been
praised for its 801 uses in a Tamil poem from the
medieval period, the ‘Tala Vilasam’ (Lubeigt 2001).
These few examples of tree uses, wood and
non-wood products and services, are representative
of the importance Indian farmers give to their
various trees planted or kept on croplands or grazing
lands and exploited since immemorial time.
The diversity of products and services corresponds
to the different needs, constraints and
strategies of rural societies, be they economic, social
or religious, or even environmental. It may
considerably vary from one site to another, making
species and their uses site-specific and the agroforestry
systems complex by nature.
Traditional agroforestry system and
socio-economic changes
Tree uses may also vary with time and accordingly,
traditional agroforestry systems, like any
other system, are indeed subject to adaptation or
disappearance. Demographic and economic conditions
may notably induce drastic changes in the
livelihood of rural communities and directly affect
agroforestry systems and landscapes.
This is the case for shifting cultivation, a once
common cropping system of semi-nomadic population
in the tropical forest zone. In the mountains of
north-east India, the system locally called “jhum”
by tribals is based on slashing and burning of the
natural vegetation which, after a short period of
cultivation, is allowed to re-grow for thirty to sixty
years in its longest cycle. But under demographic
pressure, the cycle has been shortened from 2 to 3
years, which provides insufficient slash material
and has meant change to sedentary systems of agriculture
at the expense of forest and soil sustainability
(Ramakrishnan 1998).
At a different scale, but within a similar context
of socio-economic changes, a comparable trend
can be observed when analyzing the effects of the
Green Revolution of the 70s. Whereas the agrotechnical
progress of this unprecedented agricultural
shift has undoubtedly enabled India to feed
1 Although agroforestry research-development has been carried out in various centres in India for 20 years and a
strong impetus has been given, notably through ICAR, the National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi
(Pathak et al. 2000) and NGOs, foresters, agriculturalists, social scientists and other concerned scientists rarely
interact.
DEPOMMIER 65
its huge population, notably by increasing crop
productivity and extending croplands, the massive
use of chemicals, the promotion of selected varieties
and mechanization and irrigation have led to
the mismanagement of natural resources, viz. soil,
water and trees. The ecological importance of indigenous
trees has been ignored by eliminating
them from the landscapes or simplifying the floristic
composition and structure of traditional farming
systems. In mountain areas, such as the western
ghats, deforestation and the uncontrolled development
of agriculture have induced an unprecedented
risk of water dysfunctionning in the
downstream commanded plains (the Cauvery watershed
area, for example). This is why a “Doubly
Green Revolution” is now proposed by scientists to
define new environment-friendly technical and
policy models where agroforestry appears to be a
major avenue of reconciling agricultural productivity
and sustainable management of natural resources
(Griffon & Mallet 1999). This involves the
many roles trees are able to play in land use systems
(farming systems, grazing lands, etc.) and the
benefits they may provide in site-specific condi-
tions.
Biodiversity and multi-production of
forest-based agroforestry systems
Environmental and agro-ecological functions of
trees (soil protection, water control, soil fertility
maintenance, conservation of biodiversity, etc.) as
well as their various functions of production (wood,
food, fodder, medicines, etc.) are remarkably
expressed in agroforestry systems derived from
forests, such as the coffee based-system of the
Coorg District, Karnataka, or imitating them, such
as the home gardens of Kerala, in the western
ghats.
The homegardens of Kerala
The home gardens of Kerala constitute the
predominant farming systems of the state
(Guillerme 1999). They are small in size (more or
less 0.5 ha) and traditionally coconut-based, Cocos
nucifera still being widely used for food, energy
and building materials. Home gardens are typically
multi-strata systems characterized by a high
density and diversity of the tree component. Density
is commonly found between 400 to 800 trees,
shrubs and palms per hectare and the number of
species is more than 120 according to various surveys
(Mohan Kumar et al. 1994; Nair & Krishnamurthy
1984), although floristic composition and
density may vary significantly at plot level according
to site conditions and farmers’ needs and
strategies.
Although the diversity of Keralese home
gardens is not as high as the diversity of evergreen
forests of the western ghats (the Simpson Index
varies from 0.44 to 0.86, against 0.90 according to
Mohan Kumar et al. 1994 and Jose 1992) and
partly differs in terms of floristic composition
(exotic and domesticated species such as fruit trees
are common in homegardens), it is interesting to
point out that the highest densities and indices of
diversity are found in the smallest home gardens.
The medium and large homesteads, which have
been massively integrating rubber trees (Hevea
brasiliensis) for a generation, at the expense of
tree diversity, have clearly been making trade-offs
between subsistence crops and cash crops (Jose
1992). Conversely, small home gardens correspond
to the farmers’ strategy to reduce risk and achieve
food security, an unvoidable strategy for the
dominant category of small and marginal farmers
of Kerala in a context of high demographic
pressure on natural resources (Kerala is one of the
most densely populated states of India with 750
inhabitants km-2).
Home garden systems also record greater total
canopy coverage (130 to 150% as a total of lower,
medium and upper stratas; Jose 1992).
Accordingly, soil erosion levels are remarkably low
(1 t ha-1 yr-1), given the high rainfall and steep
slopes of the medium altitude environment of
these home gradens (Moench 1991). Interestingly,
when comparing successive developmental stages
of land use systems based on forest clearing -which
is still a common practice in the forests of India, be
they protected or not- organic matter appears to
rebuild to high and sustainable levels in wellestablished
agroforestry systems and more
efficiently than in other ones, thanks to the
capacity of trees to build soil fertility.
The other main characteristic of the home gardens
is their high productivity and diversity of
production to satisfy the primary needs of the
farmers: food (with the exception of rice which is
cultivated in adjacent valleys), fuel, timber and
cash (Nair & Sreedharan 1986). According to various
surveys and apart from the coconut, the domi-
66 AGROFORESTRY AND MULTIPURPOSE TREES
nant woody perrenial crops include: arecanut (Areca
catechu), the betel-nut used as a masticatory,
black pepper (Kerala being the first producer in
the world, thanks to its home gardens), the rubber
tree (Hevea brasiliensis), the cashew nut (Anacardium
occidentale), the jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
and its wild variety used as a valuable
timber (Artocarpus hirsutus), fruit trees, mango
(Mangifera indica) and tamarind (Tamarindus
indica), many other wood species such as teak
(Tectona grandis), Ailanthus triphysa, a commercial
soft wood used in the match industry, and legume
trees like Erythrina indica, a fast-growing
species commonly used to trail and shade pepper
vines and maintain soil fertility. According to
Krishnankutty (1990), the home gardens of Kerala
provide some 80% of the total wood requirements
of the state, mostly its firewood, while timber is
supplemented by imports. Therefore, home gardens
appear to be an appropriate way to reduce
pressure on natural forests and contribute to the
environmental balance of this fragile mountain
area. Nevertheless, since the Ministry of Environment
and Forests imposed in the 80s a ban on tree
felling in the reserved and protected forests of India,
home gardens are in their turn excessively
pressured to satisfy the increasing demand in
wood, and one may ask whether the system will be
able to follow this trend if additional intensification
and adapted management is not promoted in
the near future.
The coffee-based system of Coorg
Since the introduction of coffee by the British
in the mid nineteenth century, a comparable
multi-strata system has developed in Coorg, Karnataka,
at the expense of the evergreen and wet
deciduous forests. The coffee-based system is cash
crop oriented, initially developed with Coffea arabica,
which notably requires shade, low variation
of temperature and good soil fertility, all requirements
the forest can meet. Through a selective
clearing of the forest, an appropriate number of
trees is kept and managed to control shade, with
additional plantations of trees, if necessary. In this
system, tree and coffee canopies appear as an efficient
cover to control soil erosion, which naturally
develops on steep slopes, and of weed development.
Trees provide a quite important amount of organic
matter to the benefit of the coffee, as well as wood,
fodder, fruits and other by-products to the farmers
who are, for the most part smallholders (having
less than 2 ha). Since the liberalization of coffee
prices, in 1992, and following a considerable increase
in prices, coffee plantations have been extended
by 30%. They today cover 20% of the total
area of the district. Productivity has increased by
100%, thanks notably to performing varieties of
Coffea robusta, which has emerged as the dominant
coffee species and made Coorg the first zone
of coffee production in India. One major trait of
this change is that Coffea robusta does not require
the same amount of shade as Coffea arabica (25%
as opposed to 50%), and some new varieties even
require no shade at all.
As a consequence, and in addition to the fact
that the forest area of Coorg has dropped to 30%
(compared with 50%, 25 years ago), the tree component
of the coffee-based system has been directly
affected in its structure and floristic composition.
Tree densities have progressively reduced
and tree canopies are severely lopped. In a survey
carried out by Desjeux (1999), tree density varies
greatly according to the variety of coffee, but also
with the age of the coffee plantation, the size of
the trees and the site, from 285 to 1471 trees per
hectare. These figures are comparable to the densities
observed in the surrounding deciduous and
evergreen forests of Coorg. If biodiversity remains
globally high (Simpson Index: 0.8 to 0.9), it may
be locally low at plot level because of the increasing
number of exotic species competing with the
local species. Erythrina sumbubrans and Grevillea
robusta, two fast-growing species, are among the
most commonly planted species for coffee shading
-and also for trail pepper vines, the second cash
crop of the system-, before Clerodendron viscosum,
Mangifera indica, Olea dioica, Litsea floribunda
and Artocarpus heterophyllus in the evergreen
forest zone, and before Sapindus laurifolia, Artocarpus
heterophyllus, Acrocarpus fraxinifollius,
Ficus racemosa, Dalbergia latifolia and Citrus reticulata
(mandarin, a progressively forsaken tree
crop) in the wet deciduous forest zone. In this
zone, recent coffee plantations of robusta are
shaded by only one or two exotic species, constituting
an extreme in the floristic composition of
the system, the structure of which comprises one
or two strata of trees, whereas it is two to three in
the “traditional” system. Moreover, in the latter,
trees which are lopped every year to control
shade, are able to satisfy farmers’ needs, entirely
DEPOMMIER 67
for fuel wood (approx. 2 m3/year/homestead) and
partly for timber and service wood. This clearly
cannnot be the case with a mono-specific shading
cover made of Erythrina sumbumbrans. The shift
from a long-run management system based on the
high diversity and multiple uses of the tree component
toward a simplified and short-term profitable
system -strictly devoted to cash crops- is,
therefore, indeed highly questionable in terms of
sustainabilty.
Multipurpose trees to bridge
environmental and socio-economic
issues in the drylands of India
Drylands cover considerable areas in peninsular
India, in its north-western, central and southern
parts, where trees may be observed in many
different farming systems and spatial arrangements
in the agrarian landscapes: associated with
irrigated or rainfed cropping systems, in agrisilvicultural
or silvipastoral systems, scattered on
farmlands, along farm boundaries, around plots
(live fences, windbreaks, etc…), or on bunds
(paddy fields), in woodlots -which is a more recent
way of planting trees as a reply to the recurrent
shortage of fuel wood and the demand in poles for
building materials and pulpwood. Trees around
homesteads are not rare, although comparable
with home gardens of the humid zone, and trees
for fodder, fuel wood (Prosopis juliflora, for example)
as well as other uses on rangelands and
wastelands, are not negligible due to the area
these lands cover in arid and semi-arid zones.
Whether trees for multiple and traditional uses
with multiplier effects in the activities of households,
promoting rural industries and employment,
or species with limited scope such as the
Eucalyptus, they all appear through their various
management practices to be extremely important
for the fragile environment they help to protect
and the economy of the local populations (Pathak
et al. 2000). Because of the scarcity of water, low
productivity of soils, shortage of wood, food and
fodder, and the low level of farmers’ revenue
which characterize the drylands of India, trees
have a considerable scope for soil and water conservation,
including soil fertility maintenance and
resaturation of degraded lands, diversification of
revenues, promotion of marketable products,
woody and non-wood products and, finally, alleviation
of poverty.
Traditional knowledge of trees and use of nonwood
products: the cases of the neem tree and
palmyra, and the Kejhri model
Neem, nature’s drugstore
Neem (Azadirachta indica) is one of the most
cultivated trees, accounting for 14 million
individuals in most parts of India, except in high
and cold regions (Sidhu 1995). It is also one of the
most valuable multipurpose trees of the arid and
semi-arid zones, particularly valued for the basic
needs of rural households, like medicines (antiallergic,
anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, cardiac,
diuretic, etc.), pesticides, nematicides, insect
repellent, fertilizers, fodder, soaps, lubricants,
tooth brushes, etc. As mentioned by Rawat (1995),
it is truly nature’s drugstore. As the species is a
good source of chemicals (alkaloids) for use in pest
management, and as modern agriculture is based
on the uncontrolled use of synthetic pesticides with
toxicity for the environment and residual effects,
there is a good scope for promoting biodegradable
products of the neem tree as an efficient and cheap
alternative.
In addition to this, the species is drought tolerant,
easy to propagate and manage in a large
variety of edaphic conditions, able to rapidly provide
a sufficient quantity of active ingredients
from its leaves (fodder, medicinal uses, insect repellent),
seeds and oil from them, which is the major
non-wood product. From it, the active compound
azadirachtin is extracted for medicinal and
nematicidal purposes, soap, toothpaste and cosmetics.
Seed cake, the main by-product, is an excellent
organic manure with insect repellent and
nematicide properties. Many other medicinal properties
have been registered from its bark, gum and
flowers (Rawat 1995; Sas Biswas et al. 1995). Finally,
the wood, which is a durable one, is largely
used for house and boat construction, furniture,
agricultural tools and crafts. It is also a good fuel
wood and an excellent shade tree for man and livestock
during the dry season. For all these reasons,
and most particularly for its non-wood products,
the neem tree is subject to an increasing attention
from research, with priorities concentrated on the
genetic selection and improvement of the species
(particularly of its medicinal and pesticidal proper-
68 AGROFORESTRY AND MULTIPURPOSE TREES
ties) to get the best value-added products (with
export potential) which in return should benefit
the small farmers. In this perspective, new models
of agroforestry systems which integrate selected
neem trees, product exploitation and pest management
have to be promoted. In arid and semiarid
lands where drought and soil erosion is affecting
crop yields, attention should be given to windbreaks
and shelterbelts composed with neem and
possibly other species and to its management with
the protected crops.
The sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer)
Borassus flabellifer or palmyra is one of the
most common sugar palm trees of South and
South-East Asia. In Tamil Nadu where it is named
Nera, this palm tree is extensively planted or
transplanted in the croplands and wastelands of
the coastal areas. Because of its high and narrow
canopy and limited rooting system the species may
be associated with crops in rainfed systems, but it
is also propagated on irrigated lands, on bunds of
paddy fields and dikes of dams and water tanks. In
all cases, palm trees are usually managed on lines
at narrow spacings and require almost no care
once they have been planted. One of the main uses
of Nera is for its sap extracted from the inflorescences
regularly cut in the season (6 months) to
traditionally make alcohol (toddy) and sugar (jaggery)
products which are locally commercialized.
The management of Nera, the exploitation of its
sap and its processing in sugar, belong to different
stakeholders. Thus, the owner of a grove of palmyras
will rent them to a sap tapper, who is exclusively
a Naddar, whereas sugar will be made by
another player and toddy will be sold by someone
else, who is the owner of a toddy shop (from the
Grammany caste) with whom the tapper has made
a deal. To complicate the system, the sale of toddy
is forbidden in Tamil Nadu, but still authorized in
Pondicherry territory. Accordingly, and apart from
the fact that alcohol from Nera continues to be illegaly
commercialized in Tamil Nadu, the future of
the palmyra appears today highly compromised.
First, because there are less and less sap tapers
who want to do such a low-profit and dangerous
job (tree climbing). Consequently, sugar makers
are less numerous as they now collect lower quantities
of fermented sap and because sugar cane is
preferred to jaggery, at equivalent sales prices.
Finally, as palmyra owners are less and less concerned
by the multiple uses and benefits they may
get from it, palm groves are insufficiently regenerated
or even cut to get immediate profit from the
sale of the trunks. As Nera “wood” is cheap and
extremely durable, it is used as building material
(roofs, shelters). Other important commercial
products of the palmyra are obtained from the
leaves to make baskets, mats, etc. providing incomes
to the women often employed by “palm-leaf”
co-operatives. Women also collect the ligneous rachises
of the Nera leaves which are used as firewood,
as are the rachises of coconut leaves. To
complete this review of the main uses of the Nera,
one should mention the consumption or commercialization
of the edible immature seeds and germinated
seeds, at the local level. But these products,
be they of economic or social importance, will
certainly not be enough to maintain the palmyra
in the landscapes of Tamil Nadu unless a renewed
interest is brought to its ecological and economic
roles (for example, processing and marketing of
new products).
The Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) model
Prosopis cineraria in Rajasthan, as Faidherbia
albida (syn. Acacia albida) in Sahelian Africa (Depomier
et al. 1992; Mallet et al. 2000), are the
kingpins of a traditional agroforestry system at the
interface between rainfed agriculture, silviculture
and pastoralism. The species known as Khejri is a
versatile multipurpose tree which provides fodder
(leaves and pods of high digestibility and nutritive
value), fuel wood (high calorific value), thorny
twigs as fencing materials, medicinal products
from its bark and various other specific secondary
products (food, crafts, etc.). The tree, which is
drought resistant thanks to its long tap root system,
which can draw water in the deepest layers of
the soil, is also well-known for its ability to maintain
soil fertility. It is, therefore, an appropriate
low competitive species of a subsistence system
developed in areas where rainfall ranges from 100
to 350 mm per year. In Rajasthan, trees are propagated
in a scattered way (sometimes on
boundaries) in association with cereals and pulses
at a density of 5 to 80 trees per hectare (Tejwani
1994). Khejri is a slow-growing species in its early
stage, with low fodder production and limited fertility
effects before 10 years. Farmers continue to
maintain it in their fields to sustain crop production
and feed their livestock, the droppings of
DEPOMMIER 69
which will, in return, contribute to the maintenance
of the fertility of the soil. Being an efficient
and still thriving traditional agroforestry system,
the Khejri system should be improved, notably at
the tree level (selection of the best provenances
and genetic improvement are currently done by
the CAZRI) and at the level of its management
(ideal density, effect of high-intensity lopping for
fodder on fertility maintenance, best combinations
of tree-crops).
Commercial trees on croplands: teak and
other woody perennials
Agroforestry systems are neither exclusively
traditional nor strictly multipurpose oriented. This
is the case of poplar (Populus deltoides), a fastgrowing
species planted in association with wheat,
sugar cane and other crops in the alluvial plains of
North India. The tree, which is usually planted at
wide spacings on lines within the plots and on
boundaries (or in woodlots), provides a soft wood
for pulp and plywood industries and high returns
to the farmers in a short rotational period of less
than 10 years. As the reduction in crop yields (up
to 50%) is largely compensated by the profit
obtained from the sale of poplars, such technically
feasible and financially viable plantations under
“modern” agroforestry schemes are currently
encouraged through bank loans offered to the
farmers.
Similar developments of commercial trees
planted on boundaries or woodlots have been observed
in the drylands of Tamil Nadu for 20 to 30
years and mainly in coastal areas, with Casuarina
equisetifolia, and more recently (10 to 20 years) on
irrigated lands, with teak (Tectona grandis). The
latter has brought a renewed interest in the private
lands of South India due to the increasing
demand for teakwood. This includes small logs
and, therefore, can be produced in a rotation of 20
to 25 years which may be 15 to 20 years if performing
germplasm and appropriate silvicultural backstopping
are provided to the farmers. In a survey
carried out by Demenois et al. (2002), small farmers
are planting teak in small numbers on boundaries
(62%) or greater numbers in woodlots (38%) at
narrow spacings (usually at 1 to 2m). Irrigation is
provided to the trees at least during the first years
when in blocks, and every year in the case of
alignments. Accordingly, growth of teak trees
when properly managed (fertilized at the planting
time, regularly weeded and pruned in early stages)
may be very fast, up to 20 cm diameter in 10 years.
Meanwhile, growth performance and the form of
the trunk (straightness, branchless) may vary significantly
according to site and management conditions
and also according to germplasm, which is
poor in many cases. In addition to that, a quick
growth of teak is synonymous with lower quality
wood and particularly with a large quantity of
sapwood which cannot be marketed at the same
high prices as the wood of larger teak slowly grown
in natural forests or long rotational plantations.
Nevertheless, the teakwood from the private lands
of Tamil Nadu in the coming years will be comparable
to the small logs of teak currently massively
imported from West Africa and South America,
and will, therefore, compete with it. As the Indian
demand for teakwood, and particularly for “cheap
teakwood”, is expected to increase, there is potentially
much room for it, at least on regional and
local markets. In this perspective, one of the main
constraint remains the rules and regulations applied
to teak and doubtless to other local species of
commercial interest. The dynamics of private teak
plantations and the promotion of its wood in the
Indian market will depend largely on ad hoc forest
policy, notably if the system of authorization from
the Forest Department for cutting trees and
transporting the wood without restrictions can be
simplified. One may be certain that encouraging
such profitable tree farming will contribute to reducing
the pressure on forests and sustain rural
development.
Mangroves as a multipurpose
ecosystem
Mangroves may be considered as peculiar agroforestry
systems or, more precisely, aquaforestry
systems, associating animal components (fish,
prawns, crabs, shells, etc.) with a specific flora of
trees and shrubs developed in the intertidal zone
of coastal areas and sheltering larvae and immature
individuals of this fauna. Mangroves are considered
to constitute one of the most productive
ecosystems and, as such, are multipurpose but also
complex and fragile ecosystems. Because of their
faunal and floristic richness, mangroves have been
over-exploited, notably for their wood by the local
population of fishermen. This is the case for the
mangrove of Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, where
70 AGROFORESTRY AND MULTIPURPOSE TREES
trees (Avicennia sp., Excoecaria agallocha and
Lumnitzera racemosa, in particular) constitute the
main source of fuel wood and are still an important
source of materials in the building of traditional
houses, shelters and fences, in spite of the interdiction
to cut trees imposed by the Forest Depart-
ment.
As a consequence of the strong pressure
exerted on mangroves, big trees are rare, having
been exploited long ago, and some species have
become endangered due to the lack of
regeneration, whereas others with good coppicing
ability appear to have a better resilience. As
noticed by Collin et al. (2002), large gaps inside the
groves -beyond the visible front line of trees lying
along the waterways- can be observed; and on the
other hand, species such as the spiny scrub
Acanthus ilicifolius are invading large areas and,
therefore, making fishing zones in accessible to the
fishermen and their nets. Exploitation of the
mangrove varies also according to the distance
from the villages; the shorter the distance, the
greater is the exploitation and disturbance of the
tree stands, in terms of sanitary conditions and
dynamics. The influence of other human activities,
grazing and trampling by livestock (buffaloes), are
additional sources of degradation. Though more
and more people are using new building materials
for their houses and gas or kerosene stoves rather
than mangrove wood, the change does not concern
the poorest fishermen, whose dependency on the
mangrove should not be less in the near future.
Regarding the fish and prawn resources extracted
from the mangroves, which are of first importance
for this population, this dependency could be
drastically threatened by the unconsidered
development of prawn cultivation which has taken
place at the expense of the mangrove itself, and
can be compared to the Green Revolution in its
blue version, immediately profitable but not
sustainable.
Conclusions
The traditional ecological knowledge of farmers
concerning agroforesty systems and multiple uses
of indigenous trees is eroding with socio-economic
changes and the development of rural societies in
India, as in other developing countries. But the
trend differs according to various factors: notably
agro-ecological conditions, demographic pressure
and access to the market. In the most fragile zones,
mountains and dryland areas, where thriving traditional
tree-based systems still exist, the dynamics
of social forestry, including the improvement of existing
agroforestry systems or the development of
new agroforestry models, can be easily promoted.
In this context, gaps in basic knowledge of MPTs
and the functioning of systems must be surveyed
and analysed by researchers2 and developers to
build up a sustainable management.
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