"Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam"
Richard Tapper
Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 68, No. 3, Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts. (Jul.,
1995), pp. 185-193.
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http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-5491%28199507%2968%3A3%3C185%3A%22AAT%22O%3E2.0.CO%3B2-E
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"ISLAMIC ANTHROPOLOGY" AND THE
"ANTHROPOLOGY OF ISLAM"
RICHARD TAPPER 

School of Oriental and African Studies, London 

This article reviews various proposals for an "Islamic anthropology" and their relation to
the "anthropology of Islam." Islamic anthropology approaches social and cultural phenomena
on the basis of Islamic values/principles and with analytical techniques derived
from Islamic texts and traditions. This approach has been disparaged on various grounds
such as the academic unacceptability of a value-based study of values. All anthropologies,
however, as has increasingly been appreciated in recent decades, are to some extent valuebased
and prisoners of their own assumptions and definitions of relevance and significance.
This is most explicitly true of other "ideological" anthropologies such as marxist, feminist,
or applied anthropologies. If this is the case, in what ways does an "Islamic anthropology"
(whether of Muslim or of other societies and cultures) differ from other "anthropologies
of Islam" (that is, studies of Muslim societies and cultures, or more specifically
of Islamic traditions, beliefs and practices)? [Islam, ideology, critique, text, tradition]
Anthropology and the Islamic Middle Easl methods drawn in some way from Islam. What the
competing versions of Islamic anthropology share is
The anthropology of Islam, as a sub-field of the an- a basis in Islamic texts-they are, in other words,
thropology of religion, is some decades old. I un- Islamic approaches to the study of anthropological
derstand it to be the application of the methods of texts, rather than anthropological approaches to
cultural/social anthropology to the study of Islam the study of Islamic texts.3
as a world religion and associated sets of social in- Previous writings on Islamic anthropology
stitutions. There has been a variety of approaches have been proposals and mutual criticism by Musand
a number of reviews of them (notably Asad lims; there has been little critical comment from
1986; Eickelman 1981, 1982, 1989; el-Zein 1977), non-Muslim anthropologists, who have mostly eiand
I do not intend to add another review here. I ther chosen to ignore Islamic anthropology or welshall
concentrate rather on one particular kind of comed it rather patronizingly, without serious disapproach
that has recently come into prominence: cussion, as a promising new development.' It
so-called Islamic anthropology. should be said that most of the proposals have not
There are several contending varieties of Is- apparently been addressed to anthropologists or
lamic anthropology, set out in at least four books other academics in the first place, but rather to a
and numerous articles published during the 1980s.' wider, non-academic, and primarily Muslim audiI
shall concentrate on four works: the book by Ilyas ence. Nonetheless, I would argue that it is imporBa-Yunus
and Farid Ahmad, which, despite its ti- tant for Islamic anthropology to be seriously distle
Islamic sociology, is in essence a proposal for cussed by anthropologists and that something can
Islamic anthropology; the two main publications on be learned from such discussion whether or not it is
the theme by Akbar Ahmed (Toward Islamic an- found to be of positive value to the development of
thropology and Discovering Islam); and the book anthropological ideas generally.
by Merry1 Wyn Davies (Knowing one another).
Proponents differ as to whether Islamic anthropol- The Problem
ogy should confine its attention to Muslim societies
or should have a universal(-ist) scope; in other It is easy to sympathize with Akbar Ahmed's cri de
words, Islamic anthropology is not necessarily in- coeur:
tended as the anthropological study of Islam, analogous
to economic or political anthropology, any The Muslim intellectual confronting the world today is
sometimes moved to despair. He is ill-equipped to face it,
more than marxist or feminist anthropology means his vulnerability diminishes him in his own eyes. He
Ratherthe anthropology of marxism or femini~m.~ wanders between two worlds, one dead, the other powerit
means, broadly, doing anthropology inspired by less to be born. His wounds are largely self-inflicted. At
186 ANTHROPOLOGIC,4L QUARTERLY
the root of his intellectual malaise lies his incapacity to
come to terms with Islam in the twentieth century (1986:
61).
These sentiments are (pre-)echoed in numerous
Muslim publications-and indeed are commonplace
in Third World intellectual writings. The
sub-text is articulated thoughtfully and at some
length by Wyn Davies and others. Given the relation
between knowledge and power (knowledge
brings power, and power defines knowledge), dominated
groups come to resent being studied and
"known" by others. Third World intellectuals,
emerging from a history of Western economic, political,
cultural, and academic dominance, have
come to reject these dominations and the way they
are linked in "Orientalist" discourses and definitions
of knowledge. For Muslims, Islam and Muslim
identity, long damaged or threatened by Western
and materialist values, must be reasserted at all
levels, including that of knowledge. The issue
raised by Islamic anthropology (as by other critical
anthropologies) is the relation between anthropology
and its subjects (traditionally, the West studying
the rest; the orientalist gaze): objectification
and explanation (science) or empathy and understanding
(humanity). More precisely, Islamic anthropology
poses the question: can Islam (and the
culture and society of Muslims) be studied and understood
by non-Muslims? In other words, what is
the nature and possibility of an anthropology of
Islam?
A Critique of Western Knowledge, Social Science,
Anthropology
The proponents of Islamic anthropology offer a critique
of Western (social) theory, to accompany
their Islamist critique of Western society, culture,
and values. Western social theory, anthropology included,
is ethnocentric and tainted by its imperial
history and connections. Anthropology is the child
of Western colonialism; its subject-matter, assumptions,
questions, and methods are dictated by imperial
interests; and its practitioners come from imperial
backgrounds and biases (through structures of
funding, jobs, publication, readership) or ThirdWorld
(Western-oriented/supported) elites. The
traditional subjects of Western anthropology are
the primitives. In the post-colonial era, as the number
of unstudied primitives has diminished, anthropology
has entered crisis and terminal decline.
Since Third World countries gained independence,
the peoples studied have insisted on doing their
own anthropology, defining their own approaches,
and studying and criticizing the cultures and theories
of the West.
In his booklet for the International Institute of
Islamic Thought (1986), Ahmed's critique is confined
largely to unsupported statements about "the
notorious ethnocentricity of Western anthropology"
and to the invidious polemical trick of comparing
the ideals of one society (the Muslim world) with
the evils of another (AIDS, drugs, and crime in the
West). His prescription seems to be: if only they
would become Muslim, all these problems would go
away. But are there no social problems in Islamic
societies?"
Ba-Yunus and Ahmad, writing for the Cambridge
(UK)-based Islamic Academy, offer a more
sustained criticism of what they see as the three
major approaches in Western social theory, finding
them divergent and in need of reconciliation, and
all flawed by their commitment to positivism, objectivity,
and scientific detachment. Structuralfunctionalism
ignores conflict and produces ethnocentric
modernization-Westernization theory.
Marxian and conflict-based approaches overstress
economic processes and larger structures. Symbolic
interactionism and "self-theory" focus vainly on
the unpredictable individual. Sociology is supposedly
universal, but the sociology of the Third
World does not take account of Third World perceptions
and social realities, for example, those of
Muslims; its ethnocentrism typically underrates the
role of religious experience. Further, sociology is
commonly too theoretical and pretends to be valuefree;
rather, it should be practical and applied and
acknowledge the necessity of values.
Wyn Davies conducts a rather broader review
of Western scientific thought in general and anthropology
in particular, emphasizing how anthropology
lacks unity (except as regards its basis in
Western civilization) and rigor. She invokes
Thomas Kuhn's and Michel Foucault's contributions
to the understanding of how knowledge is produced.
Western paradigms of knowledge have
shifted, but on a background of continuity-Fernand
Braudel's longue duree. The nonEuropeans
studied by anthropologists have had no
say in how anthropological discourse has developed
and how it has constructed reality. Western discourse
is secular and sees religion as a human creation;
this Western view, and the original Christian
view of Islam, means the West cannot understand
"ISLAMIC AN7
Muslim civilization. Typical reactions by Muslim
apologists, she says, divert energies from the creation
of a proper Muslim agenda. The central tradition
of anthropology is fieldwork: participant-observation
of the primitive (a fundamental concept).
The point of the conventional criticism of the link
with colonialism was anthropology's failure to observe
and criticize the colonial center; and despite
its new awareness of all these epistemological
problems, modern anthropology still fails to comment
effectively on Western society and international
relations.
The major elements in this critique of Western
theory are entirely conventional." A response must
begin by admitting that there is, or was, some truth
in every point; but they are failings that characterize
few anthropological studies of Islam and Muslim
societies over the last couple of decades or so.
The critics (as with other critical anthropologies)
too often resort to misrepresentation and selectivity,
the depiction of outdated stereotypes, and the
erection of straw men. This is not the place for a
point by point rebuttal, but it is worth marking
some central issues, particularly those which affect
the plausibility of the proposals for an Islamic anthropology
to be discussed below.
Thus, Ahmed uses Beattie's 1964 Other cultures
as a source book for current Western anthrop
~ l o g y , ~while Wyn Davies, even if her version is
more considered and up-to-date, can still refer to
Raymond Firth's 1951 Elements of social organization
as a standard text. Small wonder then that
they present such caricatures of a discipline "in crisis
and decline," in which the only anthropologists
are Westerners; in which anthropologists study
only non-Western societies or only primitive societies;
in which anthropology is necessarily ethnocentric,
using Western categories and assumptions to
study cultures to which they do not apply; in which
anthropology is functionalist, arid scientism, concerned
only with objective analysis and explanation,
and opposed to both subjectivism and application;
and in which this atheist functionalism puts
religion on the same level of analysis as economics,
politics, and kinship. In fact, in the last two decades
anthropology has thankfully moved beyond
reacting to such tired criticisms and has established
new conventions of ethnographic reflexivity and
theoretical self-awareness. This is not so say such
conventions are unassailable in their turn, but there
is no apparent awareness of them among the proponents
of Islamic anthropology.
Nor are they free from the contradictions of
those who both berate Orientalists for homogenizing
"the Orient" (as against "the West") without
recognizing cultural and other differences, and then
accuse those such as anthropologists, who do recognize
and study differences, of dividing in order to
rule. Such native critics, moreover, usually come
from an educated elite, whose authority to speak
for or about all their co-nationals or co-religionists
is as debatable as that of any outsider. Some Orientalists
are justifiably accused of "exoticizing"
their subjects, over-emphasizing the cultural distance
between a Christian West and a Muslim
East; yet modern Muslim radicals such as Wyn
Davies appear to be doing just the same in their
desire to claim the study of the Muslim world for
Muslims alone.8
As many have pointed out, European and
Middle Eastern cultures have common roots and
orientations and have developed in dialogue with
each other. Even if modern Western world views
were molded by renaissance/enlightenment/colonial
heritages, they are still very firmly grounded in
the traditions of Greco-Roman philosophy and Semitic-monotheistic
religions that they share with
the Islamic Middle East. Differences are variations
on a theme. More liberal Muslim apologists point
to the role of medieval Islam in preserving and developing
this heritage during the European Dark
Ages, and to the important contributions of earlier
Muslim scientists, ethnographers, and social theorists.
Mutual misunderstandings between the Muslim
world and the West through the centuries have
arisen in contexts of political competition, from the
Crusades to the spread of European commercial
and political dominance in the nineteenth century.
Despite diverging paradigm shifts in European and
Muslim thought, there are still basic continuities
and possibilities of dialogue and mutual understanding.
Indeed, I would venture to suggest that
the Muslim world as such, which inevitably shares
many of its traditions with the West, cannot produce
a truly radical critique of it. This would appear
to be evident if we contrast both traditions
with more distant Indian, Chinese, or Japanese, or
radically different Native American, Australian, or
African traditions, where any elements of common
heritage with the West are comparatively recent
and shallow-rooted.
188 ANTHROPOLOGICAL QUARTERLY
Defining Islamic Anthropology
Even if a distinctive radical critique of Western society
and social science is not to be expected-and
certainly has not yet appeared-from Islamic
quarters, Muslims from Middle Eastern countries
are among the non-Westerners best able to respond
with alternatives to Western representations of
their cultures. Their economic and political power
is now often such that they can at least set the
terms of what is to be studied and by whom. Their
dilemma is: whose terms, with what questions? If
anthropology, then should it be through categories
derived from Western training and literature, or
from Muslim or other indigenous sources? Or
should anthropology be rejected altogether as a
Western product?
One important Muslim response since the
1960s has been the attempt to Islamize the social
sciences, including anthropology, that is, to appropriate
them for Islam, by insisting that Muslim societies
can only be studied by Islamic anthropology
or by those conversant with Islamic textual sources.
There are common themes to the several different
versions of Islamic anthropology: for example,
the proposal to construct the ideal society, and
social theory, from a particular reading of Koran/
sunna values and principles; the affirmation of the
eternal validity of this Islam; and the presentation
of Islam as the middle way between Western extremes.
But there are radically different and conflicting
assumptions among the versions.
Ba-Yunus and Ahmad propose Islamic sociology
as an activist Islamic program for sociologists:
seeking the principles of human nature, human behaviour
and human organization [it] must not be allowed to become
an end in itself. It has to be applied for the sake of
the promotion of lslam within individuals, around them
in their societies, and between and among societies (1985:
35-36).
The approach must be based on Koranic assumptions:
that God created nature; that Man is made
of opposites, with free-will, the ability to learn, and
superiority to the rest of nature; that society is
based on the family, divine laws, an instituted authority,
and economic activity; and that history is a
dialectical process of conflict and consensus resulting
in the Prophet. It also should be a comprehensive
sociological approach which will encompass
and reconcile the extremes of other contemporary
approaches. Further,
Islamic sociology would be comparative and critical, i.e.,
it must accept, as a preoccupation, the task of comparing
human societies-Muslim as well as non-Muslim-with
[the ideal] and discovering the degrees of departure of
these societies from this model (p. xiii).
The ideal picture of Islamic social structure must
be constructed, with Islam as ideology, culture, or
way of life, a process of deliberate obedience to
God's laws, the only alternative to capitalist democracy
and socialism, one that is midway between,
but not a mixture. Islamic ethnography then
examines actual variations; the reference point is
the ideal Islamic middle path of customs relating to
family and marriage (contract, choice, sex, polygyny,
gender, tribes), economy (property, wealth,
market, inheritance, gambling, interest, poor tax,
nationalization), and polity (state, authority, justice,
consultation). Capitalism, democracy, and socialism
as social systems and associated social theories
failed because they had no mechanism of
commitment; commitment in Islam is ensured by
prayer and fasting rituals. The overall picture is of
an openly ideological Islamic sociology; theory and
comparison (of present Muslim societies, and also
of/with present Western societies, ideologies, and
sociologies) refer to an ideal Islamic society, and
practice concerns how to achieve it.
For Akbar Ahmed, Islamic anthropology is
the study of Muslim groups by scholars committed to the
universalistic principles of Islam-humanity, knowledge,
tolerance-relating micro village tribal studies in particular
to the larger historical and ideological frames of Islam.
Islam is here understood not as theology but sociology.
The definition thus does not preclude non-Muslims
(Ahmed 1986: 56).
Wyn Davies' proposals are, to me, the most
articulate, sustained and radical. For her, Islamic
anthropology is
the study of mankind in society from the premises and
according to the conceptual orientations of Islam. . . .
[It is] a social science. concerned with studying mankind
in its social communal relations in the diversity of social
and cultural settings that exist around the world today
and have existed in the past. The focus of its attention is
human action, its diversity of form and institutionalization;
it seeks to understand the principles that order, organize
and give it meaning (1988: 82, 113).
The Western anthropology of Islam is ahistorical:
it sees Islam as an abstracted ideal and ignores literary
traditions and spiritual hierarchy; but one object
of Islamic anthropology is to produce alternative
categories and concepts and then enter a
189"ISLAMIC ANTHROPOLOGY
dialogue with Western anthropology. What are the
relevant Islamic concepts, their history, and their
context? Tawhid (unity) is central, and dichotomy
alien. Drawing from the Sunna (hadith, fiqh,
shariah), Wyn Davies proposes ulema (the
learned) and ummah (community, society) as central
elements. Man is nafs (living entity), with jitrah
(natural, God-given disposition), khilafah
(status of vice-regentship), and din (religion as way
of life). God created human diversity, with two
referents: shariah (laws) and minhaj (way of life).
The shariah defines parameters within which many
ways of life are possible. The Islamic frame is universal;
European ethnography failed to come to
terms with diversity from the start, and created the
notion of "primitive." The Islamic perspective cannot
start with despising other ways. There is no
room for "otherness," nor for either relativist or rationalist
extremes, but it calls for a distinctive synthesis
between them. Concepts and values to form
the basis of Islamic anthropology must be worked
out carefully in order to avoid submission to the intellectual
premises of Western scholarship:
Unless we are clear about the context in which the categories
of Islamic anthropology and social analysis are to
be operated and investigated, a discussion of the categories
themselves will have little significance and there will
be plenty of space for mental inertia and force of habit to
regard what is offered as merely a gloss upon conventional
Western anthropology. It is not just the categories
but the entire way of thinking about them and manipulating
them that must be Islamic (p. 128).
The first concept is ummah: communities at
all levels. Every ummah has a din (religion as way
of life). The purpose of investigation is to ascertain
the function of community
as a system that facilitates the harmonious embodiment
of moral values as a constructive environment for right
action, or hinders or deforms the purposive intent of
moral values within a way of life and therefore impairs
the ability or opportunity for right action (p. 129).
Next come shariah, minhaj, and institutionalization-all
these are the foundation of ethnography
in Islamic anthropology. Wyn Davies outlines the
practice of an Islamic ethnographer in the field: to
seek to identify the shariah and minhaj, and then a
variety of values; then to ask practical questions relating
to development and response to crisis. Participant
observation and other methods will be
used, along with dialogue with the subjects, study
of their history, and classification and comparison.
Islamic anthropology's concepts of man and of
community with their entailments make it "a distinct
and different discourse of knowledge from
western anthropology" (p. 142). Distinct also are
its boundaries with other disciplines; unlike Western
anthropology, Islamic anthropology is basic social
science.
Wyn Davies comments on earlier proponents
of Islamic anthropology. Nadia Abu-Zahra is commended
for bringing the interpretation of the Koran
to the interpretation of Muslims' actual behavior.
Akbar Ahmed is castigated for including Nur
Yalman's study of Sri Lanka under the rubric of
Islamic anthropology. Talal Asad is praised for
criticizing the conceptual premises of Western anthropology
and their application to Islam, and for
noting the different focuses of knowledge: Islam on
the moral person, the West on the nature of society.
Others merely provide an addendum to Western
anthropology, as a response to colonialism, but
accept the basic Western approach as universal; or
promote the indigenous social scientist with his/her
special access and insights (Soraya Altorki, Akbar
Ahmed). Even the more radical have only partial
approaches; Ali Shariati, for example, uses familar
terminology in a new way. Wyn Davies herself
starts with a new set of terms, to avoid confusion,
and to deny the presumed universality of dominant
Western terms and their usage. But the new terms
should not be geared only to Muslims and Muslim
society, like those of Ba-Yunus and Ahmad. For Islamic
anthropology, she proposes borrowing Ibn
Khaldun's term 'ilm al-'umran, with complex historical
and geographical resonances which she examines
in detail.
Problems with Islamic Anthropology
In my view, there is little to object to in the methods
of research proposed for Islamic anthropology;
they replicate traditional anthropological practice.
The main difficulties for an anthropological reading
of the Islamic anthropology program have to do
with its acknowledged ideological commitment,
and, in the case of Wyn Davies, her proposed terminology;
and the question why, if the program has
in fact nothing substantively new to offer, the proponents
feel it necessary to indulge in this particular
exercise of appropriation and relabeling.
Thus Ba-Yunus and Ahmad's program for
ethnographic research is an entirely conventional-indeed
outdated-investigation of the top-
190 ANTHROPOLOGICAL QUARTERLY
ics of kinship and family, economics, and politics.
It seems, however, that religion and ritual, the
fourth topic of the old structural-functionalist
quartet, are not to receive the same attention: religion
(Islam or other) is equated with the system as
a whole, or at least the rules and ideals that define
it. One has to add that the Koranic assumptions on
which their Islamic sociology is to be based parallel
closely those of Christian creationism.
As for Ahmed's Islamic anthropology, while
the teachings and ideals he outlines as relevant to
the study of society are admirable, though highly
generalized, when he comes to specific prescriptions
for a new view of Muslim societies, he offers a taxonomy
whose debt to Islamic ideals is far from
clear, plus a set of "models" whose inadequacies I
have demonstrated else~here.~In his objections to
Western writings on Islam he lays himself open to
criticism in his own terms. In effect, the Islamic
anthropology he proposes constitutes another "Orientalism";
the only difference from the original is
that his ideological commitment is made explicit. It
is significant that in his view some of the best Islamic
anthropology is produced by Western nonMuslims
(Gellner, Geertz, Gaborieau) and one
Japanese (Nakamura); those Muslims he praises
for their Islamic anthropology include the modern
Yalman as well as the medieval al-Biruni and Ibn
Khaldun,lo but as Wyn Davies points out, the former's
Islamic background (if any) is not evident in
his work, while the latter two hardly constitute anthropologists
in the conventional sense accepted by
Ahmed.
Wyn Davies herself is to be congratulated for
recognizing the epistemological problems with anthropology
and its heritage, and for attempting to
make her own assumptions explicit. Her own proposals
are disappointing, however, consisting
largely of a new terminology of Koranic/Islamic
Arabic terms which simply translate standard English
social science analytical categories. The guiding
concepts and assumptions listed, for example,
tauhid, the unity of God extended to the unity of
mankind (surely a basic assumption of all anthropology),
are ideals and eternal values. The central
analytical concepts ummah, din, shariah, minhaj
translate directly into community, culture, norms,
customs; the new concept of "consonance" is
hardly clarified or elaborated. The concepts of "society"
or "relationship," for which there are plentiful
Arabic (Koranic?) translations, are oddly omitted.
Following her own logic, in fact, Islamic
anthropology should be conducted only in Arabic,
and avoid not only all Western terms but all ways
of relating them in syntax and semantics.
Despite claims for the distinctiveness of an Islamic
anthropology, the methods Wyn Davies proposes,
though more contemporary than those of BaYunus
and Ahmad, are strictly conventional to
modern anthropology: use of participant observation,
dialogue, text, statistics, indigenous language,
etc. Islamic anthropology is a holistic (that is, functionalist)
study of all levels, including international
relations and boundaries (that is, ethnicity). Disciplinary
boundaries with sociology and history are
to be torn down, but significantly there is no mention
of anthropology's relations with psychology
and philosophy. The reader is subjected to long
passages of preaching on the superiority of the Islamic
approach, which to a non-Muslim anthropologist
appears as a closed and circular system; and
there is no mention of problematic areas such as
gender or Koranic punishments. The concept of
ideal type is acknowledged as a basic principle,
with the problem that comparison of empirical
cases with the ideal is to be based in ideology. Islamic
anthropology slips from a concern with variation
within the shariah, to allowance and tolerance
for all ways, but in effect we are offered Islamic
ethnocentrism disguised as universalist relativism.
The empirical study of values is even vitiated by
predetermining the categories of analysis to be
used, rather than attempting to understand subjects
in their own terms. In her book Wyn Davies
adduces no cases where these approaches and
methods have been tested in practice.
Thus there seem to be three broad approaches,
though proponents do not necessarily stick to one of
them. In the first, Western anthropology is to be
adopted, but under the guidance of Muslim ideals;
who, though, is to decide what those ideals are?
The second is associated with Muslim apologists
who point out that Islam too has produced anthropologists
and that the roots of the best Western
concepts and ideals are to be found in the Koran
and the Sunna. The third approach is radical: Islamic
anthropology should reject Western anthropology
and start afresh with a distinctive Islamic
approach; the Sunna is the basis for a distinct set
of (purified) values, ideals, and analytical concepts.
In all versions Islamic anthropology sets up an
ideal and compares societies with it. But there is
disagreement on whether Islamic anthropology can
be the study of Islamic societies only or of all socie-
191"ISLAMIC ANTHROPOLOGY"
ties. For some, Islamic anthropology is explicitly a
way of analysing permissible Islamic forms of society
and culture, and of comparing non-Islamic
forms with them.
A prime argument of Islamic anthropology is
that, because of its basis in Islam, it is logically,
theoretically, and morally superior to other approaches.
Sometimes it seems to be no more than a
slogan; or at best a vade mecum for anthropologists
who happen to be Muslim, to guide their values
and choices in practical and ethical decisions, for
example, in the issues such as ethnocentrism versus
cultural relativism, the application of anthropology
in practice and development, and the various dilemmas
to be faced during field research. Being addressed
to Muslims, can Islamic anthropology be
seriously discussed by those not committed to it? It
would be too easy to dismiss Islamic anthropology
as incapable of a serious contribution to the field of
anthropology and not worth study except as a distinct
indigenous perception." However, it is difficult
for non-Muslims to comment except to point to
flaws and similarities with what it is supposed to
replace.
Any ideological version of anthropology
clearly plays on the ambiguity between the notions
of anthropology as a view, whether personal or ideological,
of human nature, society, and values, and
as a comparative and theoretical academic discipline
whose practitioners attempt to detach themselves
from or reflect upon personal or ideological
biases. In many ways Islam (as religion, theology,
sociology, theodicy, philosophy) is an anthropology;
it can appeal only to those who accept its basic tenets.
Is the notion of Islamic anthropology thus a
tautology or a contradiction in terms?
The proposals for an Islamic anthropology
which we have outlined have the virtue of being explicit
in their values and ideological commitments.
Anthropologies which claim to be non-ideological
are constantly subject, internally and externally-at
least in the current postmodernist atmosphere-to
debate over basic assumptions. Any ideological
anthropology, by contrast, tends to be
dogmatic and allows little debate, except internally;
it can neither ask the most interesting questions
asked by other anthropologies, nor can it itself ask
any interesting new questions-it can only provide
answers. At present these answers fall short of a
thorough, unequivocally Islamic anthropological
study of either Muslim or non-Muslim society
which can be demonstrated as a significant advance
on non-Muslim anthropological studies of Islamic
societies.
Islamic anthropology is no more easily dismissed
than any other "-ism"; it should be taken
seriously because it addresses a wide audience,
avows its ideological base, and invites critical discussion.
At the same time the motivations of its
proponents should be questioned. As noted above,
the authors are primarily addressing a Muslim
non-academic audience, presumably even less familiar
with recent developments in anthropology
than they seem to be themselves. They would appear
to be mainly interested in furthering their own
positions, as anthropologists, within the world of Islamic
intellectuals, and not in promoting their appropriation
of the discipline for Islam within the
world of anthropologists. It has to be said that, if
they did attempt the latter, their arguments would
carry no weight. They can no more claim universality
for a non-believer than can any other explicitly
ideological anthropology or "-ism."
Islamic intellectuals with different origins and
backgrounds (Pakistani, Turkish, Iranian, Arab,
British) have produced different anthropologies and
emphasized different Islamic concepts. What of
non-intellectual Muslims-is their Islam and their
approach to the analysis of society less valid as an
anthropology? Wyn Davies' Koranic prescription
for Islamic anthropology-"know one another,"
seeing fieldwork as a dialogue and exchange of understandings-is
to be preferred to other approaches
in which the tyranny of a Great Tradition
approach predominates.
The challenge of Islamic anthropology to nonMuslim
anthropologists is essentially a continuing
warning to keep under review basic concepts and
assumptions and any tendencies to -ism or ideology;
but it does also raise the perennial question of
whether a critical anthropology, that can stand
outside all these -isms, is possible.
The Anthropology of Islam: A Personal View
Some of the most incisive critiques of Western anthropological
writings on Islam, the best and most
persuasive reflections and suggestions, have come
from scholars originating in the Muslim world but
trained in the West, such as Abdul Hamid el-Zein
(1977) and Talal Asad (1986). Whether or not
they are Muslim, they have not intruded their beliefs
into their anthropology, any more than did Evans-Pritchard
or the other "Oxford Catholics." The
192 ANTHROPOLOGICAL QUARTERLY
anthropological study of religion is not theology. It
is not necessarily against either theology or religion.
But good anthropology does have subversive
potential; it asks awkward questions about the political
and economic interests and the personal connections
of powerful ideologues at all levels of society;
it also asks how ideologies are constructed and
how language and other systems of symbols are
manipulated. The best anthropological studies of
Islam, by Muslims as well as non-Muslims, have
resisted the tyranny of those (whether Orientalist
outsiders, or center-based ulama) who propose a
scripturalist (Great Tradition) approach to the culture
and religion of the periphery; they aim to understand
how life (Islam) is lived and perceived by
ordinary Muslims, and to appreciate local customs
and cultures (systems of symbols and their meanings)
as worthy of study and recognition in their
social contexts, rather than as "pre-Islamic survivals"
or as error and deviation from a scriptural
(Great Tradition) norm.
The anthropology of Islam involves translating
and humanizing ordinary believers' cultures, as
well as analyzing the production and use of Islamic
"texts." The elements of the Great Tradition (forma1
duties and beliefs, texts, and the officials and
others who produce them) have also been subject to
study in their social and cultural contexts, allowing
the relevance of political manipulations, economic
constraints, and tribal/kinship/ethnic allegiances
and rivalries. All these matters can be investigated
only by extended and intensive participant observation;
and it is debatable whether they are best studied
by an insider (one who is from the community
studied, who shares its culture and religion, but
may not have the skills or indeed the inclination to
bring to the surface what is taken for granted); by
a compatriot (one who may be separated from the
subjects by language, culture, class, and associations,
but who may be reluctant to acknowledge
this distance); or by a complete outsider (one who
may have to start from scratch in language and the
rest, and take much longer, but who at least brings
a fresh eye and "stranger value" to the field).
The anthropology of Islam studies how Muslims
(individuals, groups, societies, nations) present/construct
themselves as Muslims (as a major
constituent of their identity), for example, through
markers of various kinds: diet (proscription of pork
and alcohol), myth and genealogy (holy descent),
reverence for the prophet (mevluds in Turkey),
conflict (Shi6a/Sunni), and discursive traditions.la
Some of these markers are clearly textual, though
all of them could be seen as texts in a broad sense,
and hence matter for discussion within the context
of anthropological approaches to the study of Islamic
texts. This observation clearly also re-introduces
the problem of what is the "Islam" that
anthropologists study, on which there has been a
continuing debate. Is it a unity or a diversity? Is it
what professing Muslims say and do? Is it a Koran-based
set of ideals, identified by theologians or
by sociologists-that is, a Great Tradition? Is the
anthropology of Islam the study of Muslim societies;
or of Islam as a religion (texts, practice, beliefs,
history)? These may be hackneyed problems,
but they certainly have not yet been resolved, and I
would maintain that consideration of the recent
writings on Islamic anthropology throws some fresh
light on them.13
NOTES 

Acknowledgmenrs This is a revised version of a paper delivered
at the Middle East Studies Association Annual Meetings in
Washington. Uovember 1991, and at a public lecture for the
Centre of Near and Middle Eastern Studies, School of Oriental
and African Studies, London in December; a later version was
presented to a panel at the American Anthropological Association
meetings in Washington in November 1993. It has benefited
from comments received on those and other occasions, especially
from Dale Eickelman, the panel discussant at MESA,
from readings by Ziba Mir-Hosseini and Ali Tayfun Atay, and
from two anonymous readers for Anrhropological Quarrerly.
Faults and misconceptions remain mine. I am grateful to
Daniel Martin Varisco and Greg Starrett for inviting me to
participate in the MESA and AAA panels respectively, and to
SOAS for giving me time and financial support for my visits to
Washington.
'The bookz are Ba-Yunus and Ahmad 1985; Ahmed 1986,
1988a: Wyn Davies 1988. Articles include Mauroof 1981;
Elkholy 1984; Ahmed 1984; Wyn Davies 1985; Maruf 1986,
1987; Momin 1989; see also some chapters in Shariati 1979.
'See Shirley Ardener's distinction between "feminist anthropology"
and the "anthropology of women" (1985).
avoid confusion, Islamic anthropology should perhaps
be called "lslamisr" anthropology, by analogy with, for instance,
marxist anthropology, and with the contemporary usage
of "Islamist" for political and intellectual movements inspired
by Islam. A related issue, which will not be dealt with here, is
whether anthropologists studying Muslim societies must be capable
of reading and understanding the Arabic texts on which
Islam is based. Those who insist on this necessity are sometimes
guilty of a common Arab and Arabist presumption that
Islam(ic) = Arab(ic). Its opponents also point to the irrelevance
of studying Arabic texts for the study of that still large
majority of Muslims who cannot read or understand those texts
themselves.
'See for example Hart 1988: Young 1988; and favourable
reviews cited by Ahmed 1988b. Exceptions include Maruf
1987; Sulani 1988; Eickelman 1990.
193"ISLAMIC ANTHROPOLOGY"
5See R. Tapper 1988; and the exchange of letters with Ah- Professors of London University and published by Cammed
in Man 24: 682-684 (1989). In his foreword to the booklet bridge University Press) lslamic scholars would do well
the late President of the Institute, lsmail al-Faruqi, outdoes to prepare a reply. If not, their silence will be taken as an
Ahmed in his misrepresentation of "Western anthropology.'' In incapacity to prepare a suitable answer (Ahmed 1986:
his later book (1988a) Ahmed does recognize that all is not 51).
well with lslamdom either. '=See Asad 1986. One virtue of Ahmed's "theory of his-
5 e e Hymes 1972; Asad 1973; Diamond 1974; Said 1978. tory" (in Discovering Islam) is his suggestion always to look at
'Otherwise, his representation of Western anthropology the "other" which each leader/group/movement faces (and in
consists of dropping some arbitrarily chosen names in a manner terms of which it defines and redefines itself): the Ottomans
which indicates he has either not read their works or not under- and Christian Europe, Shi'i Safavids and their Sunni rivals,
stood them; see reviews by Maruf 1987; R. Tapper 1988; Pakistan and India, though he refrains from proceeding with
Momin 1989. lslam and Christianity; Judaism and the others; modern Is-
8For comments on the critique of Orientalism, see, for ex- lamic fundamentalists and the West, nineteenth-century naample.
Eickelman 1989: Chapter 2; 153, 374, 392-395. tionalists versus the imperialists. See also R. Tapper 1984 and
OReviews in Asian Afairs 12. 328-330 (1981); Man 20: N. Tapper and R. Tapper 1987.
562-563 (1985). For comments on these reviews, see Street I3l wrote this article with the hope of engaging proponents
1991. of lslamic anthropology in the debate which they professed to
'"See also Mauroof 1981. desire. Some of the responses I have had to an earlier version of
"As Ahmed observed of Crone and Cook's Hagarism, the article have unfortunately confirmed my fears that it would
For Muslims it is easy to dismiss the book as nonsense. I be both misread and misrepresented, and that serious academic
disagree. With its academic pretension (written by debate might not be possible.
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You have printed the following article:
"Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam"
Richard Tapper
Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 68, No. 3, Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts. (Jul.,
1995), pp. 185-193.
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2
The Social Anthropology of Women and Feminist Anthropology
Shirley Ardener
Anthropology Today, Vol. 1, No. 5. (Oct., 1985), pp. 24-26.
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4
Review: [Untitled]
Reviewed Work(s):
Knowing One Another: Shaping an Islamic Anthropology by Merryl Wyn Davies
Dale F. Eickelman
American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 92, No. 1. (Mar., 1990), pp. 240-241.
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5
Review: [Untitled]
Reviewed Work(s):
Toward Islamic Anthropology: Definition, Dogma and Directions. by Akbar S. Ahmed
Richard Tapper
Man, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Sep., 1988), pp. 567-568.
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5
Islamic Anthropology
Akbar S. Ahmed; Richard Tapper
Man, New Series, Vol. 24, No. 4. (Dec., 1989), pp. 682-684.
Stable URL:
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6
Review: [Untitled]
Reviewed Work(s):
Toward Islamic Anthropology: Definition, Dogma and Directions. by Akbar S. Ahmed
Richard Tapper
Man, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Sep., 1988), pp. 567-568.
Stable URL:
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9
Review: [Untitled]
Reviewed Work(s):
Religion and Politics in Muslim Society: Order and Conflict in Pakistan. by Akbar S. Ahmed
Richard Tapper
Man, New Series, Vol. 20, No. 3. (Sep., 1985), pp. 562-563.
Stable URL:
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12
The Birth of the Prophet: Ritual and Gender in Turkish Islam
Nancy Tapper; Richard Tapper
Man, New Series, Vol. 22, No. 1. (Mar., 1987), pp. 69-92.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0025-1496%28198703%292%3A22%3A1%3C69%3ATBOTPR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L
References
The Social Anthropology of Women and Feminist Anthropology
Shirley Ardener
Anthropology Today, Vol. 1, No. 5. (Oct., 1985), pp. 24-26.
Stable URL:
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A Search for the Anthropology of Islam: Abdul Hamid el-Zein
Dale F. Eickelman
International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3. (Aug., 1981), pp. 361-365.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-7438%28198108%2913%3A3%3C361%3AASFTAO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K
Review: [Untitled]
Reviewed Work(s):
Knowing One Another: Shaping an Islamic Anthropology by Merryl Wyn Davies
Dale F. Eickelman
American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 92, No. 1. (Mar., 1990), pp. 240-241.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7294%28199003%292%3A92%3A1%3C240%3AKOASAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V
The Birth of the Prophet: Ritual and Gender in Turkish Islam
Nancy Tapper; Richard Tapper
Man, New Series, Vol. 22, No. 1. (Mar., 1987), pp. 69-92.
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http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0025-1496%28198703%292%3A22%3A1%3C69%3ATBOTPR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L
Review: [Untitled]
Reviewed Work(s):
Toward Islamic Anthropology: Definition, Dogma and Directions. by Akbar S. Ahmed
Richard Tapper
Man, New Series, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Sep., 1988), pp. 567-568.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0025-1496%28198809%292%3A23%3A3%3C567%3ATIADDA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X
Beyond Ideology and Theology: The Search for the Anthropology of Islam
Abdul Hamid el-Zein
Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 6. (1977), pp. 227-254.
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