SECOND WORLD ASSEMBLY ON AGEING
A strategy for active ageing
Alan Walker
Professor of Social Policy, University of Sheffield, United Kingdom
This article argues that a strategy of active ageing, by linking
the key policy domains of employment, pensions, retirement,
health and citizenship, provides a sound basis for
industrialized countries to respond to the challenges
presented by population ageing. The article outlines the
genesis of the concept of active ageing and the principles that
should be embodied in a modernized, comprehensive
approach fit for the twenty-first century. It then considers
the potential for active ageing to address problems in the five
key policy domains. Finally the article sets out a strategy on
active ageing and illustrates how it might be operationalized
at different stages of the life cycle. In conclusion the
potentially beneficial nature of a comprehensive strategy on
active ageing is emphasized: it represents the unusual
combination of a morally correct policy that also makes
sound economic sense.
So far the policy responses of the industrialized countries to the challenges
created by population ageing have been piecemeal and strongly
compartmentalized in traditional policy domains. The main purpose of
this article is to argue for an alternative approach which recognizes the interconnected
nature of the key policy issues — employment, pensions, retirement,
health and citizenship — and which attempts to join them up
within the common theme of active ageing.
In industrialized countries, demographic and related social changes create
challenges for polices on ageing in four specific dimensions. First, although
this problem has been overstated, they are a source of pressure on
pension systems and, perhaps even more importantly, they have supercharged
the political context of the pensions debate. Second, the ageing of
the workforce, in combination with global changes in the nature of work,
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
121
I gratefully acknowledge the support of the European Commission Directorate for Employment
and Social Affairs for the research on which this article is based, and Fritz von Nordheim
for his helpful inputs. They are absolved from any responsibility for the use to which it has
been put.
implies new approaches, such as age management, lifelong education and
continuous training, and a rethinking of old policies which encouraged
early exit (Walker, 1997). Third, the growing need for social care and
healthcare — resulting from the combination of increased longevity and
changes in the structure of the family — calls for policies to increase the
supply of social care and support, to promote healthy ageing and to prevent
ill-health and disability: in short, a reorientation of healthcare systems
from a curative to a preventive model and of social care systems from supporting
dependency to promoting rehabilitation and independent living.
Fourth, the growing diversity of the older population and the risks of exclusion
in advanced old age challenge policymakers to forge a common
citizenship, regardless of age, gender, race, education, health status, income
and other resources. Policies will be required to include older people,
even the most frail, and to prevent exclusion in later life.
In the coming sections I will argue that the answer to these policy challenges
is a strategy of active ageing. In fact it connects each of these key policy
dimensions of population ageing — pensions, employment, health and
social care and citizenship. Therefore, demographic change is not only an
imperative but also an opportunity. Now is the time to break with ageism
— an unjust and excluding legacy of the past — not only because it is right
to do so in moral terms but also because it makes good economic sense.
What is active ageing?
The concept of active ageing is a relative newcomer in Europe, achieving
widespread currency only in the past five years (largely owing to the efforts
of the WHO). Its pedigree in the United States is much longer and can
be traced back to the early 1960s when it was argued that the key to “successful
ageing” (Pfeiffer, 1974; Rowe and Kahn, 1987) was the maintenance
in old age of the activity patterns and values typical of middle age
(Havighurst, 1954, 1963; Havighurst and Albrecht, 1953). In other words,
successful ageing was to be achieved by denying the onset of old age and
by replacing those relationships, activities and roles of middle age that are
lost with new ones in order to maintain activities and life satisfaction. This
theory of ageing was seen partly as a response to the then influential theory
of “disengagement”, which viewed old age as an inevitable period of withdrawal
from roles and relationships (Cumming and Henry, 1961).
Activity theorists recognized that this was a depressing picture of old
age (and empirically wrong). But, and this is important for the present debate,
their approach was regarded as too idealistic. It placed an unrealistic
expectation on ageing individuals themselves to maintain the levels of acInternational
Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
122
tivity associated with middle age through to advanced old age. It was
pointed out that, in trying to do so, many older people faced biological limitations
and, perhaps more importantly, that the economic, political and social
structures of society sometimes inhibit and prevent people from remaining
active — the obvious example being retirement (Walker, 1980).
Activity theory was also criticized for making generalizations about the
ageing process and homogenizing older people. Nonetheless, the empirical
link between activity and well-being in old age, established by this school,
remains true today.
From productive to active ageing
In the 1980s the concept resurfaced in the United States in the guise of “productive
ageing”. Its emergence reflected various sociopolitical developments.
Researchers had begun to shift the focus of ageing research from
older people to the process of human development over the life course. Underlying
this attention to the life course was the realization that chronological
age is not a good predictor of performance. A significant group of older
US citizens were making it clear that they wanted something else besides
leisure and family obligations after traditional retirement and “productive
ageing” became a rallying cry for elder advocates and others looking for a
more positive approach to ageing (Bass, Caro and Chen, 1993). These
changes chimed very closely with policymakers’ growing concerns about
the pension and healthcare costs of an ageing population, and they too
were keen to extend productivity. Thus active ageing was raised at the
G-8 Summit in Denver in June 1997, and delegates discussed ways of removing
disincentives to labour force participation and lowering barriers to
part-time employment.
Most of the variants of productive ageing are focused narrowly on the
production of goods and services and, therefore, tend to be instrumental
and economistic. For example, “productivity” means “activities that produce
goods and services that otherwise would have to be paid for” (Morgan,
1986) or, more broadly, “productive ageing is any activity by an older
individual that produces goods or services, or develops the capacity to produce
them, whether they are paid for or not” (Bass, Caro and Chen, 1993).
A modern concept of active ageing
A new concept of active ageing began to emerge in the 1990s under the influence
of the WHO. Not surprisingly, this emphasized the vital connection
between activity and health (Butler, Oberlink and Schecter, 1990) and the
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
123
importance of healthy ageing (WHO, 1994; see also WHO, 2001a). Given
the link with health and the European context in which it was developed,
this approach to active ageing has focused on a broader range of activities
than those normally associated with production and the labour market,
and has emphasized the participation and inclusion of older people as full
citizens (see, for example, Walker, 1993, 1994). The thinking behind this
new approach is expressed perfectly in the WHO dictum, “Years have been
added to life; now we must add life to years”. This suggests a general lifestyle
strategy for the preservation of physical and mental health as people
age, rather than just trying to make them work longer. Thus, the essence of
the emerging modern concept of active ageing combines the core element
of productive ageing with a strong emphasis on quality of life and mental
and physical well-being (European Commission, 1999; Cabinet Office,
2000). The WHO (2001a), for example, sees active ageing in terms of the
health, independence and productivity of older people.
Principles of active ageing
At the present time, active ageing does not amount to a coherent strategy
and is sometimes just a slogan used to cover anything that seems to fit under
it. But it is possible to outline seven key principles that should be embodied
in the concept if it is to play an effective role in bringing together all
of the policy domains necessary to respond successfully to the challenges
of population ageing.
• First of all, “activity” should consist of all meaningful pursuits which
contribute to the well-being of the individual concerned, his or her family,
the local community or society at large and should not be concerned only
with paid employment or production. This is not to downgrade the importance
of employment, which remains the leading method of inclusion, but
to recognize that activity means more than paid work.
• Second, active ageing must encompass all older people, even those who
are, to some extent, frail and dependent. This is because of the danger that a
focus only on the “young-old” will exclude the “old-old” and the fact that
the link between activity and health (including mental stimulation) holds
good into advanced old age (WHO, 2001b).
• Third, it should be primarily a preventive concept. This means involving
all age groups in the process of ageing actively across the whole of the life
course. It does not mean writing off the older generations — there will be a
need for remedial action for years to come — but the main focus should be
on preventing ill-health, disability, dependency, loss of skills and so on.
• Fourth, the maintenance of intergenerational solidarity is an important
International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
124
feature of a modern approach to active ageing. This means fairness between
generations as well as the opportunity to develop activities that span
the generations. Active ageing is intergenerational: it is about all of our futures
and not just about older people. We are all stakeholders in this en-
deavour.
• Fifth, the concept will embody both rights and obligations. Thus, the
rights to social protection, lifelong education and training and so on may be
accompanied by obligations to take advantage of education and training
opportunities and to remain active in other ways. Active ageing should not
be a flimsy disguise for reducing rights, but it should emphasize the obligations
that rights entail. Of course there is a risk here that an active ageing
strategy will be coercive, and it is always difficult for policymakers to find
the right balance between rights and obligations: I will come back to this issue
in the final section.
• Sixth, strategy on active ageing should be participative and empowering.
In other words, there must be a combination of top-down policy action
to enable and motivate activity with, also, opportunities for citizens to take
action from the bottom up, for example in developing their own forms of
activity.
• Seventh, active ageing has to respect national and cultural diversity. For
example, there are differences in the forms of participation undertaken between
the north and the south of Europe, and therefore value judgements
about what sort of activity is “best” are likely to be problematic (European
Commission, 2000).
These principles suggest that a modern effective strategy on active ageing
will be based on a partnership between the citizen and society. In this
partnership the role of the State is to enable, facilitate and motivate citizens
and, where necessary, to provide high-quality social protection for as long
as possible. This will require interrelated individual and societal strategies
to which I will also return in the final section.
The potential for active ageing
To illustrate the potential for active ageing in Europe, I will examine briefly
the key issues of pensions, employment, health and social care, and citizen-
ship.
Pensions
How can the concept of active ageing contribute to the sustainability of the
industrialized world’s pension and related social protection schemes? It
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
125
must be recognized, first, that except in the transition States of central and
eastern Europe, most of the pension reforms introduced in the past five to
ten years are short-term adjustments, reactions to perceived funding crises,
rather than fundamental changes to pension systems. This is a sweeping
generalization and, in Europe, the Italian and Swedish reforms were certainly
major ones, but it was only the British pension upheaval in the 1980s
that altered fundamentally the national basis of pension provision and so
raised a question about the continuing membership of the United Kingdom’s
pension system in the broad western European model. Second, the
focus of reform has been primarily on the supply side: restricting access to
pensions and reducing the scale of pension payments. Even when pension
ages have been raised, this is essentially a supply-side policy because, usually,
little is done to facilitate activity on the demand side. Third, therefore,
insufficient attention has been paid to the relationship between pensions
and employment. Sometimes the issue of demographic ageing is reduced
to a problem of pension scheme design, which misses the main points:
employment and the role of pension systems in excluding older people
from it.
Most of the world’s fully developed pension systems were created in an
era when lifelong (full-time, male) employment was common and age barrier
retirement provided a clearly defined end to working life. The retirement
condition ensured that older people were either employed or retired.
Today the picture is very different: not only has life expectancy increased
but also only a minority of workers enter public pension systems directly
from full-time employment. For example, in the United Kingdom and Germany,
only roughly one-third of men enter the public pensions arena from
full-time employment. In no country in the EU are more than half of men
aged 60 to 64 still in employment, and in every country apart from Sweden,
fewer than 30 per cent of women in this age group are still working. Moreover,
there is a significant proportion of older people who, rather than retire
at a fixed age, want to work on in a full- or part-time capacity and to retire
flexibly. Some companies and governments too are trying to encourage
more flexible approaches to retirement (Delsen and Reday-Mulvey, 1996).
Unfortunately, pension systems have tended to foster economic dependency
rather than productivity and to prevent people from working longer
or penalize them for it rather than encouraging them to do so.
Thus, an active ageing approach to pensions has enormous potential
both to improve the levels of pensions for those on low incomes and to reduce
the overall cost of public pension systems without having to undergo
a wholesale reconstruction of established schemes. What is required is the
abolition of age barrier retirement and its replacement with a more flexible
International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
126
approach (a flexible decade of retirement is one possible model: Walker
and Schuller, 1993), an issue to which I will return in the next section. Public
pension systems must facilitate this flexibility by creating partial retirement
options and enabling additional contributions to purchase enhanced
pensions. Tax systems will also require adjustment to ensure that they facilitate
employment. In short, as the European Commission (1997) has argued,
social protection systems, including pension systems, must be made
more employment-friendly.
Employment
This brings me to the demand side of the pensions equation. It is time to
move the debate beyond pension scheme design (which preoccupies many
experts and vested interests) and focus on expanding the funding base and
ensuring that pension systems are not a barrier to this. It is remarkable how
rarely the labour market features in discussion about the future of pensions
and the implications of population ageing. It is the first three pillars of retirement
(public, private, occupational) which are usually given all of the
attention. Yet the age barrier between economic activity and inactivity has
been changing rapidly in all developed countries. Moreover, as was noted
earlier, the trend towards early exit was actively encouraged in many countries
by public policy. This has contributed substantially to the pressure on
social protection systems — from both demand and supply sides. Also, it
has reinforced the devaluation of older workers left in the labour market.
Many countries, including all European Union (EU) member States, have
already removed public subsidies for early exit but none have tackled the
widespread age discrimination in their labour markets which results in
premature exclusion from employment (and from the payment of taxes
and pension contributions) and recourse to social protection. The potential
role of the fourth pillar of retirement income in reducing the pressure on
pension systems has only recently come onto the policy agenda.
So far the national policy responses have concentrated mainly on two
fronts: closing down early exit options, and trying to stem the flow out of
the labour market by encouraging part-time employment instead of full retirement.
In the EU such measures have been taken in Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. A third
policy option — combating age barriers in the labour market and encouraging
employers to recruit or retain older workers — has only just entered the
scene. Labour markets are characterized by age discrimination: irrespective
of the shift in policy emphasis, employers forced to reduce employment
concentrate redundancies on older workers (often in agreement with
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
127
trade unions) and, in turn, long-term unemployment affects older workers
more than younger ones. But there are signs of change towards more positive
attitudes on the part of employers. Thus, a recently completed research
project collected more than 160 examples of good practice in combating age
barriers, particularly with regard to job recruitment, retention and retraining
(Walker, 1997; Walker and Taylor, 1998). The Age Barriers Project involved
seven EU member States: Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, with additional examples from
Finland and Sweden. This was the first European research to focus on examples
of good practice in the employment of older workers and it has attracted
a great deal of attention. I believe that it provides the basis for a new
policy to revive employment among older people.
Briefly, this policy to facilitate greater economic activity among mature
workers would require action by all of those involved in labour markets:
employers, ageing workers, trade unions, employer and union confederations,
and governments. It must be focused on the workplace and involve a
partnership between employers and ageing workers, with support from
governments, to ensure that age does not become a barrier to employment
(Walker, 1999a).
The starting point must be concerted action to combat age discrimination
in employment. To raise pension ages while leaving ageism unchecked
is simply to consign older workers to exclusion, low incomes and, eventually,
inadequate pensions. Age discrimination is the antithesis of active
ageing. This form of social exclusion is not only unjust but economically
wasteful. The Age Barriers Project showed that it is possible to reverse discriminatory
practices and revealed a continuum of good practice stretching
from very limited and narrowly focused measures to comprehensive ones.
We concluded that, rather than the present reactive approach adopted by
most employers and policymakers, an integrated age management strategy
would be most effective. This would encompass both preventive measures
(such as lifelong education and continuous training) and remedial ones
(such as training for older workers lacking specific skills, for example in
new technology: Walker, 1999a). Education and exhortation are not likely
to be sufficient to overcome age discrimination and, therefore, legislation
has a role to play even though experience in the United States suggests that
it is not a decisive one.
The logical extension of a policy against age discrimination would be the
abolition of mandatory retirement ages (because age barrier retirement is
age-discriminatory, and uniform pension ages make no sense in an era of
diversity) and to have, instead, minimum pension ages. Then incentives
could be introduced to encourage people to work beyond the minimum.
International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
128
The United States has abolished mandatory retirement ages, Sweden currently
allows the postponement of pensions to the age of 70, and the new
Italian pension system allows postponement until 68.
Employment policies must also facilitate equal opportunities between
men and women (in the EU, more than 50 per cent of working-age women
over 50 do not have paid employment and women are overrepresented in
vulnerable and low-paid jobs). There is also evidence to suggest that
women experience age discrimination at younger ages than men (Itzin and
Phillipson, 1993).
Policymakers are well aware of the need to curtail early retirement before
the retirement of the baby boom generation, in order to avoid skill
shortages and excess pressures on social protection. But, so far, their reactions
are short-term and passive. As it happens, the baby boom generation
is probably the best equipped to undergo the change to more active ageing
(it is the best-educated and healthiest generation so far). It is well positioned
to become the pivotal active ageing generation. As the European
Commission (1999) has pointed out, there is a golden opportunity to utilize
the skills and resources of this generation. To do so means shifting attention
from age dependency ratios and focusing on the key issue: the economic
activity rate and, specifically, underemployment among older peo-
ple.
The need for active employment policies. Reversing the trend towards
early exit will require major changes in behaviour and expectations in the
labour market — a cultural change, in fact. To achieve this policy requires a
more active approach, for example in combating age barriers, changing
employer behaviour or providing incentives to extend working life and enable
flexible employment and retirement. Some idea of the scope (and
need) for public policy action can be seen in the table (based on an analysis
by the OECD). The baseline (a) assumes that age-specific participation rates
remain at their current levels; while the later retirement scenario (b) assumes
that the recent trend among men towards earlier retirement is reversed
and that the 1995 pattern of exit gradually moves back to the 1970
pattern between 2000 and 2030.
Similarly, in the case of the EU, if we compare its employment rates with
those of the United States we find that they are very similar for those aged
25-54, but among women and younger and older workers the EU’s employment
rates lag behind (Larsson, 1999). In fact, if the EU raised its employment
to US levels there would be no funding problems with regard to pensions.
The European Commission’s (1999) analysis shows that, regardless
of current unemployment levels, the demographic impact on the labour
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
129
force becomes an issue for all member States in the next 25 years. In other
words, Europe must create more opportunities for older workers to remain
active, because they will be needed. Just as public policies were required to
encourage early exit, so now they are necessary to achieve the change in
culture necessary to encourage and enable people to work longer.
Health and social care
The potential for active ageing can also be illustrated with reference to
health and social care. As noted earlier, the assumption that increasing
numbers of older people, especially very old people, mean a parallel rise in
social protection costs is erroneous. Nonetheless, there is an association between
advanced old age and disability and, in turn, with healthcare costs.
International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
130
Older workers (45+) as a percentage of the labour force
1970 1995 2030(a) 2030(b)
Austria 31.5 26.6 36.9 45.3
Belgium 31.4 25.5 31.8 43.3
Denmark 36.4 34.0 37.3 46.3
Finland 31.5 34.2 36.9 44.2
France 32.9 30.7 39.1 47.7
Germany 33.1 31.5 40.3 50.4
Greece 35.3 33.0 45.0 54.3
Ireland 39.0 28.4 42.2 49.9
Italy 30.5 29.5 43.0 50.6
Luxembourg 28.6 26.1 33.6 38.8
Netherlands 29.7 26.6 33.5 45.1
Portugal 33.0 31.7 44.0 55.4
Spain 32.6 27.2 44.6 54.1
Sweden 39.3 38.6 40.7 45.7
United Kingdom 37.9 33.8 38.7 46.1
European Union 15 33.5 30.5 39.1 47.8
OECD 32.9 30.6 40.5 48.2
United States 27.7 25.0 28.9 27.9
Japan 21.9 33.1 34.5 31.1
Source: OECD, 1998.
Therefore, a policy of active ageing that embraces the whole age range offers
opportunities not only to add life to years, in the WHO’s words, but
also to contain health and social care costs.
There is a critical interrelationship between health and activity: on the
one hand poor health can determine activity (for example, it is a major factor
in early retirement) while, on the other hand, activity can be an important
contributor to health (Butler, Oberlink and Schecter, 1990). It is important,
therefore, that any active ageing strategy be sensitive to this relationship
and aim to recognize and prevent ill-health and disability rather than
assuming that everyone can be equally active.
For example, if measures are taken to extend working life by raising pension
ages without action on the impact of employment on health, then the
result will also be exclusion and an increase in the take-up of disability pensions.
If these options are also closed to older workers, the impact will be
severe and unjust. Although there is a trend towards a reduction of the incidence
of disability at older ages, and although we might expect the shift
away from manual employment to diminish the significance of age-related
health problems (OECD, 1998), nonetheless the onset of such problems affects
the timing of retirement for significant numbers of older workers.
Poor health is related to age and, in turn, is a cause of large productivity differences
among older workers. Paradoxically, employment is both a major
cause of ill-health and an important source of health gain, in terms of activity,
self-esteem and social contact (Wilkinson, 1996). Unless the ill-healthproducing
aspects of employment are negated, the active ageing option
will not be open to all on an equal basis. Put more positively: if the health of
workers is maintained, then they will be more willing and able to extend
their working lives.
Again a preventive strategy is likely to be the only really effective one,
and there are plenty of examples of good practice in this respect, particularly
among the Nordic countries. For example, the Finnish Institute of Occupational
Health has experience with two relevant programmes. Finn Age
aimed to promote the health, employability and well-being of those over
45; while the Small Workplace programme was intended to encourage
small firms to adopt good practices in the interests of the welfare of all employees.
It goes without saying that a healthy workforce is likely to be a
productive one and, as the workforce ages, employers will not be able to rejuvenate
their organizations as readily and wastefully as they did in the
past.
Activity rather than dependency. Of course, a strategy to break the link between
employment and ill-health will mean improvements in the health
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
131
status of successive cohorts of retired people. But, as I pointed out earlier,
one of the risks associated with a policy of active ageing is that it will focus
only on employment and, thereby, add to the exclusion of those outside
paid employment or who are already dependent. Indeed, it is important to
reexamine existing health and social care practices to ensure that they do
not foster physical dependency among older people. For example, a common
tendency in social care is to operate as an emergency service and substitute
for family care when it breaks down. This sometimes results in institutionalization,
which has a long-documented causal link to increased dependency.
An alternative, active approach to social care would emphasize
the importance of prevention and the critical role of health and social care
professionals in rehabilitation and the maintenance of activity. Elements of
age discrimination in health and social care must be eliminated as elsewhere
(Age Concern, 1999).
Therefore, active ageing policies should focus on preventing morbidity
wherever it occurs and, in doing so, extend the quality of life of all of those
who reach retirement (http://www.shef.ac.uk/uni/projects/gop). This
means a broad public health approach aimed at preventing ill-health and
disability. What is required is a concerted effort to encourage healthy lifestyles
and healthy ageing. This would certainly enable people to remain active
for longer. For those outside the labour market, active ageing should
mean active citizenship, to which I will turn next. There is a close relationship
between health and the quality of people’s lives in old age. Of all the
factors determining an older person’s life situation, health is the most
strongly related to subjective well-being (Larson, 1978). Thus, measures to
extend healthy and disability-free life expectancy will facilitate active citizenship
and add to the quality of people’s lives.
Active citizenship
A concept of active ageing which extends beyond the labour market has the
potential not only to reduce social protection costs and add to the quality of
people’s lives but also to contribute to meeting some of the demand for social
support that an ageing population entails.
There is a common, ageist tendency to assume that inactivity in old age is
the norm. This is far from the case and the available evidence shows that
older people are relatively active. However, this declines with age and,
among those aged 80 and over, there is a small minority who are severely
isolated and excluded. This requires a strategy to include those who experience
or who are at risk of isolation and loneliness, which are key triggers of
depression in old age. In turn, depression is a major cause of morbidity and
International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
132
poor life quality and affects more older people than dementia (Heikkinen,
1995; Keogh, 1996).
There have been extensive actions in the EU member States in recent
years to encourage the active participation of older citizens in the policy
processes at local, regional and national levels. Advisory groups and councils
of older people have been established in most countries (Walker and
Naegele, 1999). Sometimes, as in Denmark and Sweden, these organizations
have a statutory responsibility and are able to exert real influence on
the policymaking process. Sometimes they are more tokenistic and unrepresentative
of the older population. Nonetheless, these organizations have
been important catalysts for political participation on the part of older people
and they could be strengthened as part of a broad strategy on active
ageing.
Older people play key roles, as volunteers, in many voluntary associations
and groups. For example, the 1992 Eurobarometer public opinion survey
showed that 13 per cent of those over 60 were members of voluntary organizations
providing free assistance or help to others — 30 per cent in the
Netherlands, 29 per cent in Denmark and 6 per cent in Greece (Walker,
1993). This factor is often ignored in negative assessments of the impact of
population ageing, as is its potential to contribute to the supply of social
support. As the WHO Brasilia Declaration on Ageing (1996) stated, healthy
older persons are a resource for their families, their communities and the
economy.
There is a considerable amount of latent volunteer potential among economically
inactive older people and their inclusion in such activity would
contribute both to their own well-being and to meeting social needs. For example,
the Retired and Senior Volunteer Programme (RSVP) in the United
Kingdom has 6,000 volunteers engaged in a wide range of activities from
gardening for frail older people to assisting GPs and listening to children
read in schools. In order to tap this potential, measures are required which
support voluntary activity in later life, to valorize volunteering in general
and to inspire older people to take part. At the moment such inspiration is
dulled by the youth orientation of popular culture and the stereotypes of
older people as non-productive and old-fashioned — in short, by a culture
of ageism (McEwan, 1993; Bytheway, 1995).
A strategy on active ageing
Despite the high political profile of population ageing and the growing interest
in more active policies, the main policy response so far is a rather passive
one emphasizing short-term cost savings, such as the closure of subsi©
International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
133
dized early exit gates (Walker, 1999b). Although there is good evidence
that public policy can have a significant impact on behaviour, for example
in the labour market, it is only a minority of countries that are proactive on
this issue. Moreover, those that are taking action tend to focus primarily on
economic activity. The time is right for a new, concerted strategy on active
ageing focusing on the whole of the life course.
This strategy should reflect the principles set out earlier in this paper and
be comprehensive, flexible, preventive, participative and flexible. It must
represent a balance of rights and obligations. This means a multidimensional
strategy, operating at both individual and societal levels but in an integrated
way. Individuals have a duty to take advantage of lifelong learning
and continuous training opportunities and to promote their own health
and well-being throughout the life course. As far as society is concerned,
the policy challenge is to recognize the thread that links together all of the
relevant policy areas: employment, health, social protection, social inclusion,
transport, education and so on. An active ageing strategy demands
that all of them are “joined up” and become mutually supportive. The danger
that this sort of strategy will become coercive (Moody, 1993) can be
avoided if policy takes an enabling and facilitating role and is responsive to
age, gender, race, culture and other differences. An active ageing strategy
should be “ageless” in the sense that it should cover the whole of the life
course. Of course it should not deny the realities of ageing, but active ageing
is concerned with how everyone ages and not only with older people.
The vision of a society for all ages
The vision behind this active ageing strategy is a society for all ages, in
which all are valued and where everyone has an opportunity to participate
and contribute regardless of their age or other personal characteristics. To
realize this vision it is necessary to:
• change the endemic culture of ageism that permeates the labour market
and other key structures of society;
• remove age barriers in all walks of life, so that people are judged on their
competence;
• develop active age management in employment, aimed at preventing
age becoming a barrier;
• keep older workers in touch with employment and enable them to maintain
their skills so that workability is not reduced;
• encourage flexibility in retirement, so that the rigid division between
employment and retirement disappears;
• facilitate active communities and access to community participation, for
International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
134
example in the form of volunteering, so that older people are encouraged
and enabled to participate and their skills and knowledge are used to benefit
the wider community;
• promote public health in all aspects of life and among all ages, especially
activity as a source of physical and mental health;
• increase the social support available to frail and vulnerable older people
so that they are able to lead quality lives and their families are not overbur-
dened;
• ensure that social protection continues to promote social quality and is
not reduced to merely safety-net or minimum provision.
It is essential not to underestimate the scale of the changes implied by
this list. In a context of institutionalized ageism, in which a youthgood/old
age-bad culture dominates employment, the media, popular culture
and elsewhere (the family excepted), the contributions of older people
are not valued to the same extent as those of younger people (Bytheway,
1995). It is difficult, therefore, not only to create opportunities to contribute
but also to persuade older people that it is worthwhile to do so. Thus there
is a huge task to change our ageist culture so that it reflects the new, more
age-balanced demographic reality. Older people themselves are not disinterested
bystanders in this process. They could be a powerful political force
(Walker and Naegele, 1999). They are already major contributors to families
and communities. It is possible, too, that the postmodern consumer culture
will break up the traditional images of middle and old age (Blaikie,
1999). Increased lifestyle choices and improved health offer some, at least, a
flexible and less ageist, if not ageless, identity.
A life course perspective on active ageing
Now that we have outlined the principles and the cultural shift necessary
to create a strategy on active ageing, what would active ageing look like in
practice? Over the whole life course, individual and collective responsibilities
should be mutually reinforcing (European Commission, 1999).
In the first age, younger people would prepare for longer, more active
and better-quality lives. This means raising awareness among young people
and their parents about the benefits of healthy lifestyles and lifelong
learning, and the importance of age self-management. Children and young
people need to learn about the ageing process and the impact of lifestyle on
the quality of their later lives. They need to learn too about how damaging
age discrimination can be to older people and society. It is important to expose
young people to positive images of older people and to emphasize the
key role of intergenerational solidarity in Europe.
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
135
In the second age, people will manage their own ageing, with support
from employers and government, and retire later and more gradually. This
means combating age barriers in employment, supporting lifelong learning
and continuous training, promoting the retention, reinforcement and
reintegration of older workers, enhancing opportunities for gradual retirement
and ensuring that social protection encourages and supports activity.
(Lifelong learning and continuous training are particularly important because
they adjust workers’ skills and competitiveness, enhance attachment
to the labour market and extend workability.) Anti-age-discrimination legislation
will be necessary to create a climate in which competence becomes
the main criterion for employment and where people are not prevented
from getting work by artificial age barriers. Health promotion activities are
essential to encourage a positive pro-health culture.
In the third age, after retirement or during partial retirement, people
should have opportunities to contribute in a variety of ways. They should
have the freedom to choose between various types of activity (paid employment,
voluntary work, community participation, family activities and
leisure) or a mixture of them, depending on what they can afford. Attention
to the nutritional aspects of healthy lifestyles is important. Programmes
which motivate and enable older people to get involved in their local communities,
such as RSVP in the United Kingdom, can greatly enhance their
quality of life as well as those of the service recipients. Some older people
may want, as now, to get involved in policy processes. The main point is
that these processes (local, regional, national, global) should not exclude
older people and should enable them to participate. Policies aimed at this
third age should also be in tune with a future transition to the fourth age,
for example in housing and transport.
In the fourth age, the goals should be maximum participation and autonomy
even when frail. Thus, a key role for policy — in health, social care,
pensions and housing — is to promote self-reliance and self-determination
among those in advanced old age. This means going beyond community
care and the provision of passive support services towards the empowerment
of older people and their family carers. This sort of approach demands
a cultural revolution within the health and social services (Barnes
and Walker, 1996), an important aspect of which will be breaking down the
barriers between health and social care and delivering a completely seamless
service. Technology will play an important part in giving security to
the most vulnerable, keeping working carers in touch with their older relatives
and ensuring cost efficiency in services (European Commission,
1998). Security in the fourth age will have to be guaranteed primarily by the
State, and care for the most dependent will have to be a public responsibilInternational
Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
136
ity (which is the majority view of the general public) though this does not
mean that provision will necessarily be public. The social economy, which
includes the voluntary associations, should be encouraged to develop partnerships
with public providers.
Conclusion
The beauty of this strategy is that it is good for everyone: from citizens of all
ages as ageing individuals, in terms of maximizing their potential and
quality of life, through to society as a whole, by getting the best from human
capital, extending community participation and solidarity, avoiding
intergenerational conflicts and creating a fairer, more inclusive society.
Also, unusually, it is a strategy that makes sound economic sense, by responding
to the economic challenges of ageing and extending employment,
and, at the same time, it improves quality of life. Enhancing quality
of life through an active ageing strategy, therefore, can further economic
sustainability. There is a good economic case for doing the right thing in
moral terms. Furthermore, it shifts the focus of policy away from older people,
as a separate group who have aged, to all of us, who are ageing constantly.
We share a collective interest in this process and in extending the
quality of our own lives. Therefore, this strategy speaks directly to the ideal
of a society for all ages — we are all part of the same project. Also, it emphasizes
the coincidence of interests between citizens, government and all
other major institutions, which is very rare indeed. Of course, policymakers
must beware of being too coercive and of seeing active ageing in crude,
instrumental terms as just a way of postponing pension payments and getting
cheap labour from volunteers. If these risks can be avoided, the social
and economic benefits will be enormous.
Bibliography
Age Concern. 1999. Turning your back on us. London.
Barnes, M.; Walker, A. 1996. “Consumerism versus empowerment: A principled
approach to the involvement of older service users”, in Policy and Politics,
Vol. 24, No. 4.
Bass, S.; Caro, F.; Chen, Y.-P. (eds.). 1993. Achieving a productive aging society. Westport,
CT, Auburn House.
Blaikie, A. 1999. Ageing and popular culture. Cambridge, OUP.
Butler, R.; Oberlink, M.; Schecter, M. (eds.). 1990. The promise of productive aging.
New York, Springer.
Bytheway, B. 1995. Ageism. Buckingham, OUP.
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
137
Cabinet Office. 2000. Winning the generation game. London, The Stationery Office.
Cumming, E.; Henry, W. 1961. Growing old: The process of disengagement. New York,
Basic Books.
Delsen, L.; Reday-Mulvey, G. (eds.). 1996. Gradual retirement in the OECD countries.
Aldershot, Darmouth.
European Commission. 1997. Modernising and improving social protection in the
European Union. Brussels.
—. 1998. The ageing population and technology: Challenges and opportunities. Brussels,
European Commission, European Technology Assessment Network (ETAN).
—. 1999. Towards a Europe of all ages. Brussels, European Commission.
—. 2000. Social report. Brussels, European Commission, Directorate-General for
Employment and Social Affairs, DGV.
Havighurst, R. 1954. “Flexibility and the social roles of the retired”, in American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 59, No. 2.
—. 1963. “Successful ageing”, in R. Williams, C. Tibbitts and W. Donahue (eds.),
Process of ageing, Vol. 1. New York, Atherton.
Havighurst, R.; Albrecht, R. 1953. Older people. London, Longmans.
Heikkinen, R. 1995. “Depressed mood among the elderly in Jyvaskyla: A five year
follow-up”, in Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine, Supplement 53.
Itzin, C.; Phillipson, C. 1993. Age barriers at work. London, METRA.
Keogh, F. 1996. Mental disorders in older Irish people: Incidence, prevalence and treatment.
Dublin, National Council for the Elderly.
Larson, R. 1978. “Thirty years of research on the subjective wellbeing in older people”,
in Journal of Gerontology, Vol. 33, No. 2.
Larsson, A. 1999. National strategies for employment policy: Responding to the challenges
of the 21st century (Speech to the IIRA National Policy Forum). Washington,
DC.
McEwan, E. (ed.). 1993. Age: The last discrimination. London, ACE Books.
Moody,H.1993.“Age,productivityandtranscendence”,inS.Bassetal.(eds.),op.cit.
Morgan, J. 1986. “Unpaid productive activity over the life course”, in Committee
on Aging Society (ed.), Productive roles in an older society. Washington, DC, National
Academy Press.
OECD. 1988. The future of public pensions. Paris, Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development.
—. 1998. Maintaining prosperity in an ageing society. Paris, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development.
Pfeiffer, E. (ed.). 1974. Successful aging: A conference report. Durham, NC, Duke Uni-
versity.
Rowe, J.; Kahn, R. 1987. “Human aging: Usual and successful”, in Science, Vol. 237.
Townsend, P.; Davidson, N. 1982. Inequalities in health. Harmondsworth, Penguin.
International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002 © International Social Security Association, 2002
A strategy for active ageing
138
Walker, A. 1980. “The social creation of poverty and dependency in old age”, in
Journal of Social Policy, Vol. 9, No. 1.
—. 1993. Age and attitudes. Brussels, European Commission, Directorate-General
for Employment and Social Affairs, DGV.
—. 1994. “Work and income in the third age: An EU perspective”, in Geneva Papers
on Risk and Insurance, Vol. 19, No. 73.
—. 1997. Combating age barriers in employment. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications
of the European Communities.
—. 1999a. Managing an ageing workforce: A guide to good practice. Luxembourg, Office
for Official Publications of the European Communities.
—. 1999b. Why the ageing workforce demands an active response in public policy (keynote
lecture for International Conference on Active Strategies for an Ageing
Workforce, Turku, 12-13 August).
Walker, A.; Naegele, G. (eds.). 1999. The politics of old age in Europe. Buckingham,
OU Press.
Walker, A.; Schuller, T. 1993. The time of our life. London, IPPR.
Walker, A.; Taylor, P. 1998. Combating age barriers in employment: A European portfolio
of good practice. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities.
WHO. 1994. Health for all: Updated targets. Copenhagen, World Health Organiza-
tion.
—. 2001a. Health and ageing: A discussion paper. Geneva, World Health Organiza-
tion.
—. 2001b. Active ageing: From evidence to action. Geneva, World Health Organiza-
tion.
Wilkinson, R. 1996. Unhealthy societies: The affliction of inequality. London, Rout-
ledge.
© International Social Security Association, 2002 International Social Security Review, Vol. 55, 1/2002
Published by Blackwell Publishers, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 01248, USA
A strategy for active ageing
139