International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
266
The Local Government in Ceylon: A Historical Perspective
RAW Ranasinghe
The Head, Department of Political Science
University of Peradeniya
Abstract
The objective of the article is to explore the local administrative system of Sri Lanka from 4th
century BC to
1815 AC through a historical perspective. The history of local administration in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) could
be traced to the period of King Pandukabhaya in the 4th
Century B.C. During his period the local
administration was given a central attention thus he legitimized the city administration. During the
Medieval Ceylon the king was the chief of the entire kingdom. The regions were ruled by the closest
members of the royal family. The village affairs were conducted by elders of villages through a council of
Village Committee. This early proof of the system of local governance in the country is considered a
derivative of Indo-Aryan model of local administration. The Country was invaded by western power such as
Portuguese, Dutch and British. The Portuguese did not want to introduce Portugal system of administration
in Ceylon. The Dutch did not wish to make drastic changes in the sphere of existing native system of local
administration. One of the unique features of the Dutch rule in Ceylon was the emphasis drawn to the City
administration. Special Ordinances enacted and enforced by them during their tenure seemed to be relevant
to city or town administration. Local administration in the Kandyan kingdom was much more complex and
magnitude than that of the ancient and the medieval system. The king’s authority was fundamental of the
central as well as the local administration. The local government system in the kandyan kingdom had been
utilized for tax collection, distribution of income, maintenance of irrigation, veterinary services and judicial
procedures.
Key Words: Ceylon, Local Government, Local Administration Village Headman, Mahawamsa
01. Local government in the Ancient Ceylon
Before embarking to the main theme of this discussion, it is important for readers to have a definition to
local government. Local government is an operation of local affairs at the local levels. “The jurisdiction of a
local government is limited to a specific area.a village, or a city and its functions relate to the provision of
civic amenities to the population living within that area” (Sarma & Sadana 2007, p. 832). Local
governments according to Rao (1965) is “the part of the government which deals mainly with local affairs,
administered by authorities subordinate to the state government but elected independently of the state
authority by the qualified residents” (Rao 1965, p. 1).
The history of local administration in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) could be traced to the period of King
Pandukabhaya in the 4th
Century B.C. According to „Mahawamsa‟ the great chronicle of Ceylon refers to the
reign of king Pandukabhaya who was the designer of ancient city of Anuradhapura, the local administration
was given a central attention (Fernando. Edgar 1967.p.1). In inscriptions dating back to 2nd
and 3rd
Centuries
B.C., the rural institutions were known as “Puga‟ or “Puka”1
. In inscriptions found in various parts of the
1
(a) “Pugiyanalenesagasa dine” (the cave that bestowed for Bhikkus ) unpublished inscription near Dombagahawela in Uva Province, Dept. of
Wild Life.
(b) Madukasaliyapugiyanalenesagasa( the cave bestowed for bhikkus by the village institution named madukasaliya – the inscription found in
Ruhunu National park. See Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch, New series, Vol. ii, part 2, P. 137
(c) „ sideviyapukanalenechatudisicasagasa, caratiseJete, KabaranakaAnujete - The cave bestowed by senior Caratise and junior Kabaranaka to
Bhikkus coming from four directions – Unpublished inscription near polpitigama in Kurunegala District mentioned in Archeological Survey
Report, 1932, p. 2
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
267
country, chiefs and deputies of village councils were known as Jetta (chief) and Anujetta (deputy) (see
footnotes). Mahawamsa evidences to the excellent town and country planning that displaying highly
advanced modern features of engineering. Guruge (1989) makes an assessment to the king Pandukabhaya‟s
contribution to the central as well as the local administration under three main spheres. First among them
was “Irrigation’ under which Jayavapi, Abhayavapi and Gaminivapi tanks were built. The second sphere
was the “Establishment of the city Anuradhapura- a planned city with well laid out public sanitation, health
services and institutions and the provisions of a Municipal Administration under a responsible executive.”
The all utility services were provided by new establishments constituted within the city limits. Thus
provisions of those services, king Pandukabhaya displayed his awareness and commitment to preserve the
fundamental rights of people in the city and in return to be legitimized the city administration by providing
required services for a convenient urban life. .
The authority of the city administration during the night was assigned to a special post called
“Nagaraguttika” (night Kingship) (Gurege 1989, p.549). Referring Mahawamsa, Guruge mentions that “to
the eldest uncle the abdicated king Abhaya, he entrusted the kingdom during the night along with the
guardian of the city.”
The social empowerment through a mechanism of devolution of economic power to particular professional
groups through “villagization” of production and services was the other striking feature of the king
Pandukabhaya‟s local administration. The name of villages had been referred to the particular artisan
groups. „Waddakagama (village of carpenters), Kumbakarnagama. (village for pottery community),
Kewattagama, (village for fisherman), Gopalagama, (village for shepherds/ herdsmen), chandalagama
(village for garbage cleaners) are instances in this regard. The city administration was fundamental in the
reign of the King Pandukabhaya. Mahawamsa evidences that out of five hundred chandalas, 200 were
engaged in garbage clearance and 150 were involved in carrying dead bodies out of the city and another 150
provided security services for cemeteries located out of the city limits (Mahawamsa, 91,92).
02. System of Local Administration
The third sphere to which the king Pandukabhaya paid attention was “the institution of the village
boundaries for the entire island. For this he had knowledge of the whole island and exercised a measure of
influence over different population groups with their own forms of government and power bases.” Though
the formal system of overseeing village affairs was started in the medieval Ceylon, it is uncontroversial if
says that the seed of the Village headman system was laid during the reign of king Pandukabhaya. The chief
of a village was known as “Gamika„and he could utilize the service of minor officials. An inscription,which
could be traced to the period of the 1st
Century A.C. found in Dewamedi Hthpattu, in Kurunegala district in
Ceylon, evidenced that the service of a “Badakarika” (treasurer) had been received by gamika (Ellawala, H
1969.p.115). “Badakarika read in inscriptions is believed to be synonymous to the modern post of
“treasurer‟ or to the position of Undia, whose duty was making lumps money to be handed over to his
superior at the Kandyan Kingdom. In some instances „Pamukas‟ had often been accomplished duties of
„badakarikas‟ too. This is an explicit evidence for the sound financial administration maintained at the rural
level. The term “Parumaka̅ ” comes in inscriptions is read by the great epigraphist Senarath Paranavithana, as
synonymous term to „Pamuka̅ ” that was used in Pali for nobles of the society or for the chief either of a
group of people or a governing board (Royal Asiatic Society 1936 p.447-48). Also, the name “ga̅ mabo̅ jaka‟
(Rasavahinie iii, p. 98) was believed to be the synonymous to the village headman.
Though the king was the absolute ruler of the country, the authority of local administration was assigned to
the local chieftains considering the difficulties for efficient and effective control of the king centering at one
station. The benefits of distance and underdevelopment of transportation and communication was enjoyed
by local chieftains with concentrated powers of legislative, executive and judicial spheres. An inscription
found in Anuradhapura dating back to the reign of King Mahinda iv (circa A.D. (953-969) who authorized
local chieftains to administer the criminal justice within the area of their jurisdiction. Under this authority
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
268
they dealt with cases of murder, violence, theft, robbery and other offenders against the community. Affairs
performed by these rural institutions were monitored by royal officials during their annual circuits to inquire
into the matters pertaining to the local bodies (Ibid). Thus the Top-Down model applied in the local
administration in the ancient and medieval periods contributed to strengthening the unified rule in the
country. Also it achieved the administrative efficiency of which benefit was to make ruled ready for an
emergency within short notice.
The village was respected as an independent local unit and collective responsibility lay upon the inhabitants
of the village for the detection of crimes committed within the area. The royal officers in their annual visits
to villages had to maintain a code of ethics which made them be prevented from utilizing labors, carts and
bullocks for their personal benefits. Cutting trees and making use of common properties for personal utilities
of circuit officials were mentioned punishable offences and officers were expected to be committed to
follow the rules. Also arresting offenders who entered the village for seeking asylum within the boundaries
of the village was not permitted. The significance of these ethical rules was that the imposition of
prohibition of corrupt practices over royal officers during their official tours. The pillar inscription of the
King Udaya iii, at Badulla mentions that “the royal officers during their circuits of judicial functions, should
not be received items like liquor, meat, curds, gee etc. from villagers as gifts or bribes and in case of
violation of such rules, the royal secretary should be informed by the village headman (Pillar inscription at
Badulla).
Villages (Gama) were evolved to cities known “pura.” The village headed by the headman Anura̅ dha̅ , later
evolved to Anura̅ dha̅ ‟s pura̅ (Anuradhapura) (Guruge W.P .Ananda op cit. 549) Similarly “Pulathisigama
(Village of Pulathisi) evolved as pulathisi‟spura (Pulathisipura). Mahawamsa (Guruge 1989) mentioned that
the Pandukabhaya – the king of Lanka established the Village boundaries over the whole island of Lanka.
03. Local government in the Medieval Ceylon (8TH
C – 12th
C)
The king (“Raja”) was the chief of the entire kingdom or the whole country. The regions were ruled by the
closest members of the royal family who were also used the name “raja” at the end of their positions. For
instance „Yuwa Raja‟ and „Pathi Raja‟. The village headman was known as „Gamika‟ or „Parumuka‟. Epa,
Mapa were also members of royal family who ruled three main regions of Ruhunu, Maya and Pihiti.
03.1 Village Committee System – Gamsabha
The village affairs were conducted by elders of villages through a council of Gamsabhawa (Village
Committee). This early proof of the system of local governance in the country is considered a derivative of
Indo-Aryan model of local administration. It was composed of elders of villagers whose number in a council
varied in accordance with the extent of the village territory and the population density. However the number
is believed to be in between 5-10. Gamsabhawa was treated independent political entity and hence the
central government‟s intervention was absent. The venue of meeting was not fixed but was a convenient
place either under a tree or in a common place called “Amba̅ lama̅ .” The subject matters pertaining to the
committee were deliberated and decided by the majority. It involved in affairs of common interest, adjusted
civil disputes, and awarded punishments to ordinary offenders against person and property, cases of serious
crime were reserved for the consideration of the king himself” (Chocksy Commission Report Para, 2). The
way of functioning of Gamsabha was absolutely democratic. The majoritarian consent was taken as the
ultimate. Observing the mechanism of functions of a Gamsabhawa‟, Fernando wrote that “The matters of
common interests were fully discussed by the council and the decisions of the majority were accepted and
acted upon by the community without dissent” (Fernando, Edgar 1967, p. 3).
Villages were continued somewhat independent from royal intervention. Yet frequent visits of royal officers
monitored the administrative performances carried out by local officers and examined the feedback of
villagers with regard to the administrative performances of headmen.The royal officers implemented the
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
269
orders of the king, judged cases, collected taxes. Taxes and dues were the main source of the income of the
royal treasury. Yet it is reported that the nature of the ancient fiscal policy was a determinant of the
commitment of rulers to “Dasarajadhamma”-the ten principles of kingship or mental status of kings.
According to the Galpotha inscription dating back to the 12th
Century mentions that King Nissankamalla
stopped tax collection for five years of term. The king Vijayabahu during his position as a sub or deputy
ruler (“Mahadhipada‟) was reported that the due tax of the people was paid by his own treasure. During their
official visits to villages, offenders or the perpetrators should not be captured within the boundaries of the
village and it was being permitted only in the outside of the limits. The unity of the village was maintained
by enforcing laws to bring villagers into a common bondage of collective responsibility. For instance, rules
had been enacted laying the responsibility upon all villages of producing a murderer at the presence of the
royal tribunal and if they were unable to do so all made obliged to be fined. In case of crime or burglary all
villagers were obliged to produce the perpetrator to the royal officers. If they failed to do so, a fine of 05
grams of gold (25 Kalans)2
had to pay by villagers collectively. Also offenders should not be arrested and
punished within the village boundaries, as a honor to the village and it was an accepted custom. The other
important evidences with regard to the local administration in the medieval Ceylon are provided by the reign
of the king Parakrama Bahu the great (1153-1186 A.D.). Fernando (Edgar, op. cit. p. 4) mentions, that the
king Parakrama Bahu the great who unified the country after the king Dutugamunu, appointed chiefs for
provinces with the capacity of in charge among other officials who served under him and were given powers
and authorities related to military and civil jurisdiction and judicial capacity.
04. Local Administration in the Kandyan Kingdom
Local administration in the Kandyan kingdom was much more complex and magnitude than that of the
ancient and the medieval system. The king‟s authority continued as fundamental of the central as well as the
local administration. The “Adigar” was the next highest position to the king and was above to the position of
disawe in the feudal hierarchy of the local administration in the Kandyan Kingdom. The chief Adigar or
Mahadigar3
took precedence over all others in the hierarchy of Kandyan chiefs and resided in his castle
known as walawwa4
- mansion which is situated closer to the royal palace5
, as his presence in the royalist
council was indispensable. Adigar was honored by rewarding a province. For instance, „Keppetipola
mahadigar‟ was the chief of Uva province during the rebellion of 1818. The tenure of the Adigar was
uncertain as the position could be held till the pleasure of the king. The position of the Adigar was not a
hereditary but dependent on wish and will of the king. Soon the subordinate feel that the king has inflamed
with him, he should find protection in a secret place or get ready to confront with the king. The latter was
very rare. “When deprived of his disavany and his honors in early 1814, he (KappetipolaAdigar) tried to
raise the people of Sabaragamuwa to revolt against the King” (KM de Silva op. cit. P. 23).
The next to the position of Adigar was „Disawe”- the chief of the area known as Disawa (district). Disawe
was appointed by the king as the chief of a region of disawa /disavani.6
. The administrative unit of “Disawa“
could be defined as an area which was geographically demarcated and administered under a Disawa-the
agent of the king. The Kandyan kingdom had been divided into two regions viz. “rata”7
and „Disa or
disawa”.8
Dewaraja (1972, p.160) noted that when the British captured the Kandyan kingdom, there were
twelve “Disaswas. The area of the disawa was subdivided into Koralas, and Korala into Patthus, and Patthu
into villages (Leitan.Tressi, G.R. (1979, p.1-2). Koralas which were subdivisions of disawa, were
administered by a royalist officer name Korala or “Ratemaththaya.” They served the king by sending their
people to protect the country in case of external invasions or internal threats to the peaceful existence of the
2
A traditional unit used in weighing of small items (1 grams = 5 kalans)
3
The number of Adigars increased over the time up to five by the end of the 19th
Century
4
Walawwa was and is even now the residential place of aristocratic people. Though a mansion belonging to non-aristocratic is not walawwa
5
The palace was known as mahawasala or Raja Maligawa
6
Province under the administration of a disawe in the Kandyan kingdom. See History of Ceylon, ed. KM de Silva, Univ. of Peradeniya
7
It was an administrative area relatively smaller than a disawa
8
Disawa was an area analogous to a modern province in extent
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
270
throne or in such cases like peoples‟ uprisings which seemed challenge the maintenance of law and order of
the territory. There were seven koralas during the reign of Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe- the last king of the
Kandyan kingdom. As Silva (2009, p.29) mentions that:
“seven Koralas were next to go over to the rebels and soon the whole of the Kandyan provinces with the
exception of lower Sabaragamuwa, the Three and Four Koralas, Udunuwara and Yatinuwara had joined the
resistance movement.”
The Disawe could enjoy all powers except exercising the death penalty which could only be enforced by the
king. The people in a disawa were obligatory to serve Disawe on behalf of the king. The Disawe could
employ people of his area in related activities of production, distribution, maintenance and security services.
The official services of nobles were paid by granting service lands which were known as „divel‟ or
„badawadiligam‟ in the 10th
Century.9
The involvement of people in production or providing of kind of
service had been organized in the manner of forced labor which was compulsory for them to provide for the
king who was treated and admired as their protector, savior, guardian and peacemaker.
Under disawe there were three deputies, namely Disawe Mohottala (he was just below a disawe but above
the other mohottalas. Attapattu Mohottala, Kodituwakku Mohottala. Vannior or Tamil districts were
coordinated by Tamil mohottalas named vanniyars under a disawe. A Disawani had been divided into sub
areas of Korales which were administered by an officer called Korala. A Korale had been divided into sub
areas called Pattu and a chief of a Pattu was called athukorala. Under him there were three main subordinate
officers called „Muhandiram‟, „Vidane‟, Duraya in accordance with their positions of the caste hierarchy.
Undiya or Undi Rala (Knox 1681, p.82) was an officer who collected tax for the king.
A Gam Sabha (village council) was not only an institution for village administration but also a conciliation
court as it was in the medieval local administration. The villagers and the chief of a village had to facilitate
the visit of royal officers providing food, lodging and assisting them in administrative procedures. However,
according to the historical records, the local government system in the kandyan kingdom had been utilized
for tax collection, distribution of income, maintenance of irrigation, veterinary services and judicial
procedures.
05. Local Government Administration under the early Colonial Powers (Portuguese and the Dutch
periods: (1505-1798)
The main objective of Portuguese in capturing Maritime Provinces in Ceylon was commerce and trading.
The diffusion of Christianity was second and supplementary to the former. The administration of Portuguese
was military in nature and it revolved in the authority of Viceroy in Goa. They did not want to introduce
Portugal system of administration in Ceylon as done by the British in their colonial administration during the
19th
& 20th
Centuries, but employed the existing caste system which had also been incorporated by Sinhalese
rulers in administering the socio-economic and cultural life of the ruled, in conducting and managing the
trade and commercial relations. One particular caste group which was involved in specific production or a
service under Portuguese rule was known as Badde (Abeysinghe.Tikiri, op. cit. p. 72). Badde, as Codrington
believed was a synonymous term used to introduce a group of caste or the area in which the particular caste
group was inhabited or for a due payment to be made to the government (Abeysinghe.Tikiri, op. cit. p. 72),
Peiris (1956, p.187) In that sense, a caste group had been reserved for producing a particular goods or
provision of specific service under the Portuguese rule. Badda as Abeysinghe explains was a social group
(caste) who performed an economic activity as a social bound for rulers. Mahabadde, for instance, was the
name for the caste of cinnamon peelers and Kuruwe Badde for elephants captures and tamers, Kottal Badde
for smiths and foundry people and kinnarabadde for,mat weavers (Abeysinghe Tikiri, op cit. p. 178). The in-
9
It was an area of which extent was demarcated by the horizon of the eye sight or the area till where you can hear the sound of a drum or a
conch see also Pro. Tikiri Abeysinghe, op cit. p. 101
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
271
charge of a Badde was known as “ Korale Vidane”. The coordination between householders of particular
caste and the Department of “Badde” was done by the minor officer known as “Duraya”.
“Disawe”, the chief of a District even under the Portuguese rule, was played a prominent role in local
administration. As Prof. Abeysinghe, (1966), observed, that the Kotte kingdom, at the arrival of Portuguese
had divided into four “disawas.” Though their authorities were supervised and monitored by a Portuguese
official, they could enjoy a considerable length of powers even under the centralized rule of Portuguese. As
de Silva (1972, p.156) mentioned “at the early days of the Portuguese rule, Sinhalese “Disawe” in Kotte
kingdom had enjoyed wider-range of powers ranging from powers to land allotments to enforce the death
penalty which were not granted even the reigns of Kadyan kings.
He had been empowered authority to appoint all officials subordinate to him and he was the commander in
chief of a platoon of “lascarin” of which all soldiers were Sinhalese (Ibid). The Portuguese did not want to
make drastic changes to the traditional system of local government but reprocessed the existing caste system
with some modifications if they were relevant and beneficial for their trade and commercial purposes.
Table I: The central and local governing System under the Portuguese Rule
The Dutch as Portuguese did not pay much attention to the local administration unless it was not beneficial
for their main objective of trading and commercial activities. Arasaratnam (1988, p.121) wrote, “their
intention was to reap all the benefits that the country had to offer, with the least expenses and with the least
disturbance of the social structure.” Also the Dutch were with an understanding of the soundness of the
local administration which was continued even by the Portuguese, in some extent with certain modification.
Arasaratnam (Ibid) continued that “The Dutch, were forced to rely much upon the native chiefs who were the
only people with any knowledge of the working of the system of land tenure and other connected problems of
administration.(yet), “dependence on native officials was there only to the extent that it was necessary and
prudent to do so.”
Source: The machinery of Administration in the Kotte Kingdom 1594-1612, Abeysinghe. Tikiri, p. 99
Cpt. Major Government
Agent
Vidanes
Mohottalas
Mudlyar (high Military
Officials)
KoraleVidaneCaptain
Sergeant Athukorala Arachchi
Kanakapulle
Captain General
Mohottala
Kanakapulle
Colombo M.C
Soldiers
Majorals/petty officials
Duraya /
Patabanda
Lascarins
Soldiers
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
272
The Dutch following their predecessors experiences and arrangements incorporated the traditional caste
system which had been constituted as an effective mechanism of economic and social maintenance in to the
Dutch administration. Yet “the key administrative positions were kept in the hand of Dutch officials who
delegated the responsibility of mobilizing the people in the villages to the graded native officialdom. Thus
the native officials the koralas the majoralas, the Vidanes, and the Aratchchi came as a liaison between the
Dutch and the ordinary people” (Ibid 121-122).
The main station of the Dutch rule in Asia was established in Batavia in Indonesia. The whole authority was
concentrated in the Governor and the council of Batavia. A similar structure was stationed in Colombo (see
table II). The governor and two commanders of Galle and Jaffna stood at the apex of the administrative
ladder.The commanders were enjoyed substantial powers and authorities in their respective areas. The
governor and the council exercised a supervisory control. Though the central authorities were retained in the
hands of the Dutch officials, it was understood that carrying out the local administration was somewhat
unaccustomed. The Dutch pouring old wine into new bottle appointed their own men as disaves in
respective to each of the three administrative sub-divisions (Colombo, Jaffna and Galle). Deputy disaves
were appointed to assist three chiefs Disaves.
Table II The central & Local Administration under the Dutch Rule
One of the unique features of the Dutch rule in Ceylon was the emphasis drawn to the City administration.
Special Ordinances enacted and enforced by them during their tenure seemed to be relevant to city or town
administration. The following ordinances 10
provide evidences in this regard. It should be noted that during
the period of the Dutch rule, no specific arrangements were made in the sphere of local government but a
substantial contribution has been made by them to development of an independent judicial system in the
country.
1. Ordinance of March 2, 1666 referred against cutting earth and building houses in the street and
roads.
2. Ordinance of August 10, 1673 ordered to keep streets clean on pain of a fine of 50 Rix. Dollar
10
See Sessional Paper xxxiii 1955, (Chocksy Report para, 2)
Source: S. Arasaratnam Dutch Power in Ceylon, Navarang, New Delhi, 1988, p.144
The Governor & the Council in Ceylon
The Governor & the Council in Batavia
Commander & the
Council in Jaffna
Disave of Jaffna
Native Officials
Disave of Colombo
Commander & Council
of Baticaloa (after 1676)
OIC in the military
Post in the area
Native Officials
Captain of
Cinnamon
Native Officials Dept
O‟perhooftat
Mannar & Kalpitiya
Disave of Matara
Commander & the
Council in Galle
OIC of military
post in the area
Opperhooft (Trincomalee) Disave of Baticaloa
Native Officials
Source: Arasaratnam. 1988. Dutch Power in Ceylon. Navarang, New Delhi. p.144.
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
273
3. Ordinance of December 17, 1676 ordered all persons having houses in town covered with cadjan to
get the same covered with tiles on pain of forfeiting the whole ground, that the street before each
houses be kept clean; and that the cattle be driven without the Fort for pasture on pain of punishment
and forfeiting of the same.
06. Conclusion
Local government is an operation of local affairs at the local levels. The history of local administration in
Ceylon could be traced to the period of King Pandukabhaya. During the King Pandukabhaya the local
administration was given a central attention. During the Medieval Ceylon (8TH
C – 12th
C) the king was the
chief of the entire kingdom. The village affairs were conducted by elders of villages through a council of
Gamsabhawa (Village Committee). Villages were continued somewhat independent from royal intervention.
Yet frequent visits of royal officers monitored the administrative performances carried out by local officers
and examined the feedback of villagers with regard to the administrative performances of headmen. Sri
Lanka was colonized by Portuguese, Dutch and British. It has found that the Portuguese did not want to
introduce Portugal system of administration in Ceylon. The main objective of Portuguese in capturing
Maritime Provinces in Ceylon was commerce and trading. One of the unique features could be found in the
Dutch rule in Ceylon was the emphasis drawn to the City administration. Local administration in the
Kandyan kingdom was much more complex and magnitude than that of the ancient and the medieval
system. The king‟s authority was fundamental of the central as well as the local administration.
References
 Abeysinghe Tikiri, 1966. Portuguese in Ceylon, Lake House Investment Ltd. Sri Lanka.
 Arasaratnam. S. 1969. The Dutch Power in Ceylon 1658/68. Netherlands Institute for International
Cultural Relation.
 Bandaranaike S.W.R.D. 1928. The Hand Book of the Ceylon National Congress1919-1928.
H.W.Cave & Co. Colombo.
 De Silva. C.R. 1972. The Administrative Structure –Portuguese in Ceylon (1617-1638.) H.W. Cave
& Co.
 Dewarajah. L.S. 1972. A study of the political Administration and social structure of the Kandyan
Kingdom. Colombo, Lake House
 Ellawala, H. 1969. Earliest Settlements, Social History of Early Ceylon. Department of Cultural
Affairs.
 Fernando. Edgar. 1967. Local Government Election in Ceylon. Sath Korala M.P.C.S. Union Ltd.
 Gamage. M.P. 1973. Growth of Municipalities in Ceylon (1865-1900) PhD Thesis University of
Ceylon, Peradeniya Campus.
 Kanesalingam V. 1971. Hundred Years of Local Government in Ceylon. Colombo Modern Plastic
Works.
 Leitan. Tressi, G.R. 1979. Local Government and decentralized Administration in Sri Lanka. Lake
house Investments Ltd.
International Journal of Science Commerce and Humanities Volume No 2 No 5 July 2014
274
 Mahawamsa. Wilhelm Geiger
 Ananda W.P. Guruge. 1989. Mahawamsa. Associated News Papers Ceylon Ltd, Lake House, p.
 Pakeman S.A. 1964. Ceylon. London Benn.
 Piris, Ralph. 1956. Sinhalese Social Organizations. Ceylon University Press.
 Rao. V.V. 1965. A hundred years of local self-government in Asam. Benil Prakash Mander, Calcutta.
 Rasavahinie iii
 Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Ceylon Branch, New series, Vol. ii, part
2
 Sarma, MP and Sadana, B.L. 2007. Public Administration in Theory and Practice. KitabMahal.
 Sessional Paper xxxiii 1955. Chocksy Report para 2
 Silva. K.M.de. 2009. History of Ceylon. Vol iii, University of Peradeniya.
 Inscriptions:
 Unpublished inscription near Dombagahawela in Uva Province, Dept. of Wild Life.
 The inscription found in Ruhunu National park. See Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon
Branch, New series, Vol. ii, part 2, P. 137
 Unpublished inscription near polpitigama in Kurunegala District mentioned in Archeological
Survey Report, 1932, p. 2