Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014) 12-26
Training Strategies, Theories and Types
Wajdi Milhem∗
Khalil Abushamsieh†
Maria Nieves Pérez Aróstegui‡
Abstract
This article aims to identify the concept of human resource training and to
emphasize strategies, theories and kinds of training. The organizational strategy and
training are very essential to show the benefits of using strategic view and perception
of training, since by linking this strategy with human resource actively, particularly on
training and development, it will contribute to the success and enrichment of the
organizations. Training and development are also considered as continuous improving
process that should be up to date to face the dynamic changes in workplace and to
adopt training as a competitive advantage of the organization. Theories are important
in choosing and implementation of training process approach on professional way. In
the same time in this article we will focus on training kinds and development of these
kinds which including E-learning and learning management system (LMS) as a methods
of training delivery.
Keywords: training, organization, training and development, strategy, methods,
performance, human capital, LMS, KSA.
I. INTRODUCTION
Training and development refer to the obtaining or transferring knowledge, skills
and abilities (KSA) process needed to carry out a specific activity or functions; so, the
benefits of training and development both for organization and individual are strategic
in nature and hence much wider. To meet the current and future challenges of
organizations’, training and development assume a wide range of learning actions,
ranging from training of the individual for their present tasks and moreover, knowledge
sharing to improve the organization horizon and customers service. Which focus on
their career development and enrichment, thus expanding individual, group and
organizational effectiveness (Niazi, 2011).
According to the dynamic developments of all work fields, the organization must
develop their HR to strategic HR, because organizations cannot apply a strategic
training plan unless they have a strategic human resource management system in place.
In the strategic human resource management literature, strategic training is regarded as
a vital way of raising employee efficiency (Richard et al., 2009). HRM is a way of
connecting the human resource function with the strategic goals of the organization in
∗
Corresponding author. E-mail: wajdi.milhem@yahoo.com. PhD candidate, Department of
Management, University of Granada. Spain. Address: C/ Campus Universitario de Cartuja
s/n, Department of Management, Faculty of Economic and BusinessSciences, University of
Granada, Spain, 18071.
† Finance and Accounting Department, Hebron University, Hebron, Palestine. E-mail:
kabusham@gmail.com.
‡ Department of Managment, University of Granada. Spain. Email: mnperez@ugr.es.
Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014) 13
order to raise productivity (Bratton, 2003). Although financial return from training is
difficult to determine, it can be measured in some instances. However, the evaluation of
training is carried out not only in money terms, but also in terms of people, work, and
power. A comprehensive assessment of training outcomes also involves assessing
trainee reactions, its impact on the workplace, operating and financial outcomes, and its
perceived usefulness in assisting people to carry out changes.
In addition to that, theories help us understand the real world by creating the
relationships between the different aspects from the theorist’s perspective (Dubin,
1976, p. 26). A theory can also be defined as a fundamental collection of statements,
which has been subjected to regular testing on how the world functions. Many
innovative, sophisticated, influential theoretical frameworks in the field of training have
been developed since 1992. These more meaningful, subtle, comprehensive and
focused theories have led considerable empirical study to be carried out in the field of
training (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001).
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Training is defined as “a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge, skill or
behavior through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or
range of activities. Its purpose, in the work situation, is to develop the abilities of the
individuals and to satisfy the current and future needs of the organization” (Manpower
Services Commission, 1981, p. 62 in Wilson, 1999, p. 4). Beardwell and Holden (2001)
stated that training is a planned process that is used to change attitudes, knowledge,
skills and behavior through the learning experience in order to achieve effective
performance in a specific activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the work context,
is to develop the abilities of individuals and to satisfy the current and future needs of
the organization. This definition links training and planning process with training as a
planned operation aimed at modifying skills through the application of experience and
education. Training is an ongoing planned process that replicates many of the stages
involved in the task in order to achieve the intended benefit. Bratton and Gold (2007,
p. 197) define Human Resource (HR) planning as ‘the process of systematically
forecasting the future demand and supply for employees and deployment of their skills
within the strategic objectives of the organization’. According to Werner and DeSimone
(2006, p. 10), HR planning helps companies predict how changes in their strategy will
affect their HR needs.
According to Armstrong (2000), strategic human resource management (SHRM)
emphasizes longer-term issues of people and consequently long-term training strategies.
SHRM should provide appropriate support mechanisms and address personal
attitudes and motivation within organizations to ensure participation and support.
However, organizations can also achieve immediate improvements in performance by
using short-term management approaches for effective training programs (Thomas,
2000).
As the strategic planning process contributes to the development of specific
functional strategies needed to achieve business objectives, strategy formulation is
important in the development of HR strategies needed to attract and retain the human
capital required for gaining competitive advantage (Poole & Jenkins, 1996). Therefore,
it is clear that strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats (SWOT) analysis will be an
important approach and strategic tool, which enhance all organization activities
including HR activities.
14 Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014)
2.1. The SWOT Analysis
As defined by David (2007), the (SWOT) matrix is an important matching
technique that enables management to develop strategic SO (strengths-opportunities),
WO (weaknesses-opportunities), ST (strengths-threats), and WT (weaknesses-threats)
solutions. Matching important external and internal factors is the most difficult aspect
of creating a SWOT matrix and requires wise judgment. According to Pealow (2011),
SWOT provides a systematic way of pinpointing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats.
SWOT analysis is considered as a vital tool for successful organizations, which
nowadays depend less on analyzing an organization’s external market position and
more on a precise analysis of its skills, and capabilities, which competitors find it
d ifficult to copy. In terms of a straightforward SWOT analysis, the resource-based
approach stresses the strategic importance of exploiting internal strengths and
neutralizing weaknesses (Barney, 1991). According to Bratton in 2003, strategic SWOT
factors are vital to an organization future.
a. The Four Strategic Solutions Based on SWOT Matrix are:
1) The strengths and opportunities (SO) solution. It focuses on internal strengths to
take advantage of available opportunities in the organization.
2) The strengths and threats (ST) solution. It examines internal strengths to reduce
the effect of external threats.
3) The weaknesses and opportunities (WO) solution. It focuses on opportunities to
help deal with internal weaknesses.
4) The weaknesses and threats (WT) solution. It minimizes weaknesses and avoids
external threats, which negatively affect the organization progress (David, 2007).
Using these four SWOT solutions will give organizations a more obvious
understanding of their situation and enable them to plan effectively. Given the external
(threats and opportunities) and the internal environment (weaknesses and strengths),
the information garnered from this analysis can be used to create a more effective
strategic framework for the organization, department and team (Norton et al., 2008).
Related to that strategic human resource management represents a relatively new
transformation in the HRM field. (Çalişkan, 2010). As it is known, organizations cannot
apply a strategic training plan unless they have a strategic human resource management
(Richard et al., 2009).
Additionally, as there are clear positive relationships between training and
development strategies, the organizational performances, job satisfaction, competitive
advantage and measured performances are the important levers to attain individuals’
good performance. Performance guide was included as an important association in
training in a number of studies (Aycan, 2003; House et al., 2004; Javidan, 2004).
Training has its strategic positioning and it directly contributes for organizational
business goals and objectives (Niazi, 2011).
2.2. Step-by-Step Strategies
Bahlis and Tourville (2005) presented six different strategies that can enhance a
training program’s overall effectiveness during the front-end planning stage. The first
three strategies focus on increasing the benefit and value of training programs, while
the other three are concerned with lowering training costs.
Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014) 15
a. Strategy 1: Align Training with Mission Goals
To determine the concrete benefits of training, clear connections between
training and goals firstly need to be established. To establish these linkages something
similar to a training needs analysis is required. It is necessary to identify the mission and
objectives related to performance. The tasks required to accomplish these objectives as
well as to determine the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) needed to perform
these functions effectively. This involves defining and prioritizing the organization’s
mission and the training unit’s mission and performance objectives. Identifying the
mission tasks needs to accomplish comprehensive performance objectives, allocating
tasks to different groups and jobs, determining the required functions, prioritizing the
necessary KSAs, identifying knowledge and skill gaps, identifying execution
procedures and problems and finally drawing up an action plan that prioritizes
activities(Bahlis & Tourville, 2005). Therefore, a direct linkage between the
organization’s mission and its learning culture benefits both the organizations and
individuals with highlighting the positive associations of learning, development,
motivation and organizational performance (Niazi, 2011).
b. Strategy 2: Improve Employee’s Performance
Training transferring ultimately aims at employee’s performance improvements
through learning and taking action on that learning (Weldy, 2009), so when a
performance gap occurs, the typical and easiest solution in the majority of organizations
is training. However, if the gap is not caused by a lack of skill or knowledge, training is
not necessary.
To achieve the desired performance levels and carry out the actions
recommended for maximizing return on investment (ROI) on training, it is necessary to
gather and analyze information to find out the reason of the problem. It is also
necessary to identify realistic solutions to fill the performance gap, to identify
implementation problems, to calculate the direct costs and benefits of possible
solutions, to prioritize recommendations and draw up an action plan.
c. Strategy 3: Reduce Time to Competency
The final objective of training programs should be to develop KSAs in order to
fix a performance problem and to achieve training unit and organizational objectives.
The following steps will help to determine the benefit of reducing time to competency,
the feasibility of using alternative delivery systems and to choose the delivery option
with the greatest impact: 1. Identify future gains and list the possible measurable
benefits of reducing time to competency. 2. Calculate the potential benefits by
calculating the expected minimum and maximum benefits per employee per day due to
cutting time to competency. 3. Gather information, particularly related to used
curricula, target audience, and environmental factors in order to determine the most
effective delivery options. 4. Identify realistic delivery options by analyzing the collected
information to find out how effectively the options meet organizational, learning, and
learner requirements. 5. Estimate the time taken to accomplish the competency solution
and estimate the required time to draw up, develop and deliver the training program for
each possible delivery option. 6. Calculate the possible benefits to demonstrate the
advantages of cutting time to competency, which are captured by converting time saved
into monetary value in relation to organizational expenditure. 7. Calculate and compare
the cost of realistic options, with the net benefit of each delivery option being found by
subtracting expected cost from potential benefit. 8. Draw up recommendations and
make a comparison of the cost and benefit of realistic delivery options to obtain an
16 Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014)
accurate picture of the most effective alternative (Bahlis & Tourville, 2005). To
conclude, the acquisition of knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes through training
has little value if the learned characteristics are not generalized to the job and not
maintained over time (Yamnill & McLean, 2001). As evidence of the importance of this
approach, a 1995 study that analyzed the advantage of cross-training Radio Operators
and Martine Traffic Regulators in the Canadian Coast Guard demonstrated the
generation of over $20 million in extra benefits by cutting time to competency by one
year using a $100,000 loaded annual salary cost of 200 employees.
d. Strategy 4: Choose the Correct Combination of Delivery Options
The following step-by-step selection process gives an important insight into
which specific factors should be given the highest priority and ways of gathering the
information required to deal with the final recommended solution. It involves;
1. Identifying delivery options currently used by the training department and
organization 2. Gathering information on training content, target audience and
environmental factors to select possible delivery options 3. Dividing training programs
into modules 4. Identifying potential delivery options 5. Making a comparison of the
cost of realistic delivery options 6. Considering a mixed delivery strategy 7. Identifying
possible implementation problems and 8. Drawing up recommendations.
A training course proposed for 390 officers for the Canadian Forces College
showed that selecting an alternative mixed delivery strategy would generate more than
$22 million in savings in an up-front sunk investment for new school facilities, together
with $6 million in annual recurring costs (Bahlis & Tourville, 2005).
e. Strategy 5: Consider Internal Versus External Options
This strategy is worth considering, as at certain times and under certain
conditions, external training consultants can be more (cost) effective than internal
training personnel. When considering the advantages and disadvantages of each training
option, it is necessary to define requirements, assess the experience and skills of internal
training staff, assess available material, calculate possible benefits, determine time to
achieve competency, calculate potential benefits, make a comparison of costs and draw
up recommendations(Bahlis & Tourville, 2005).
f. Strategy 6: Duplicate Effective Training Programs and Identify Issues
This strategy for selecting effective training programs and determining the cost
and the needed resources involves comparing different training programs in order to
find out what has worked and why, identifying and resolving problems and reducing
duplication to a minimum. To duplicate effective training programs and to detect
problem areas, organizations need to roll-up training program information, allocate
privileges to show who has official access to which information, grade and evaluate the
information, draw up a priority list of recommendations and design an action plan to
compare levels of effectiveness (Bahlis & Tourville, 2005).
So if training is to increase organizational effectiveness, it must be of strategic
importance to the organization, effectively designed and delivered, and it must be
transferred to the job. Transferring of training is thought to be the primary leverage
point by which training influences organizational-level outcomes (Kozlowski et al.,
2000).
These step-by-step strategies and methodologies provide an opportunity for
those in charge of training to follow a training strategy and to increase efficiency and
reduce costs as well as provide performance-based measurements. Increased
Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014) 17
performance is one of the most important reasons for conducting training programs.
These strategies also facilitate the monitoring of progress during the implementation
phase of the training process, the achievement of desired outcomes and the avoidance
of random training programs and their negative consequences.
III. TRAINING THEORIES
3.1. Scenistic Methods
Much progress has been made in training and development methodologies, some
of which has occurred in the area of scenistic methods, a set of approaches or
processes focusing on situations, events, case-studies, and narratives that furnish a
specific setting for performance issues, needs, deficiencies and scripted actions for
particular situations(Paul, 2010).
However, due to the social participation and consolidation practice involved and
given factors of cost and effectiveness, the scenistic methodology would be more
appropriate for team training rather than for individual instruction.
The theoretical and conceptual foundations of scenistic methodology includes
situated learning/cognition, constructivism, experiential learning, transformative
learning theory, and action theory.
a. Situated Learning or Cognition
Situated learning is one of the most important features of the scenistic method.
Theoretically, the materials we create or use, such as cases, basically situate the trainee
in his/her operational context. This material is the starting point of the methodology
and is followed by the identification of issues and problems, where the trainee is, to a
certain extent, familiar with and involved in a specific context.
According to Anderson et al. (1996), situated learning is based on situations in
which trainees are involved on a regular basis. The situational skills that trainees receive
are supposed to be used in similar situations. Training activities are shared and are, to
some extent, actively created in cooperation with other trainees working together to
identify and resolve issues.
b. Constructivism and Experiential Learning Theory
A constructivist learning perspective implies that knowledge and skills can be
improved in different ways without necessarily any one ideal solution (Jonassen, 1991).
Constructivism is well suited to the situated and scenistic methods as it stresses
comprehensible real-world functions in organizational environments. In skills moulding
in a specific environment, the various aspects of performance need to be defined,
demonstrated, and comprehended (Jonassen, 1994). This will enable people and groups
to pinpoint gaps and deficiencies in performance in a specific skill area. This type of
dynamic social participation should also accelerate the learning process.
The multidisciplinary theory of experiential learning is, to a great extent, based
on constructivism and uses psychology, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and
cognitive sciences to gain a greater insight into the learning process (Carver, 1996).
c. Transformative Learning Theory
Transformative learning in combination with scenistic methods enables and
encourages trainees to participate actively in shaping the content and application of
learning activities, and many will accept possibility of being empowered and actively
involved in decision making. Personal job satisfaction and commitment are also crucial
aspects of this type of empowered learning (Devanna, 1986; Bryman et al., 1996).
Marcinelli (1997) analyzing employee creativity and discovering the possibility of
18 Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014)
making decisions and risks that affect motivation and productivity in a positive way.
Transformative and experiential learning is concerned with using discretion, delegation,
and participation in decision-making processes.
d. Action Theory
As described by Michael Frese (2007), action theory attempts to explain how
learning is regulated and how people can change their behavior to dynamically meet
objectives in normal and/or unusual situations. Situated and scenistic learning methods
involve novel situations and require trainees to be creative to some extent. Contrary to
many cognitive and information processing theories, action theory is linked to behavior
and specific working contexts and outcomes. It is also concerned with the processes
involved in the interaction between environmental inputs and behavior in the one hand
and how cognition regulates behavior and performance on the other hand (Paul, 2010).
According to Salisbury (2008), action theory is a systematic tool for
understanding how knowledge of cognitive processes in a performance situation is
regulated by using the focus, sequence, action structure components (Frese, 2007) and
the foundations of the theory which interact dynamically. The action structure is the
most important component in relation to scenistic processes. Through sensitivity to the
complexity of the learning process, instructors can manage learner expectations to
reduce information overload. After trainees feel more comfortable with the scenistic
model, they often try to apply it to other problems in the workplace (Paul, 2010).
3.2. Human Capital Theory
Human capital theories have developed rapidly since Mincer (1958, 1962),
Schultz (1960, 1961), Becker (1962) and Ben-Porath (1967), laid their foundations.
Since training is regarded as an investment, it involves costs and benefits, which can be
assessed by using financial criteria such as present value and the internal rate of return.
Initially, Becker (1962) studied the impact on wage levels of two types of human capital
operating in a perfectly competitive labor market that had no imperfections or
distortions. One type of human capital can be transferred to other organizations, which
encourages employees to cover the costs and to obtain all the benefits of training. The
second type of human capital is regarded as specific to a company and cannot be
transferred to other companies, which incentivizes employers and employees to share
the costs and benefits of training (Becker, 1962).
Human capital theory is based on neo-classical theories of labor markets,
education and economic growth. It takes for granted that employees are productive
resources and attempts to find out whether highly trained staff are more productive
than other personnel (Simon, 2008). According to Garcia (2005), as employees do not
obtain considerable pay increases due to increased productivity after attending specific
training sessions, they will not be motivated to finance their own training requirements.
On the other hand, companies will be keen to cover these training costs, as they will
obtain almost all the returns from the enhanced productivity produced by the new skills
generated (Garcia, 2005, p. 1693-1694).
a. Return on Training Investment for Employer-Empirical Evidence
In the United States, Bishop (1994), after studying information on 2594
companies, found that there was a marginal rate of return on the initial 3 months of
training from the 2-year increase in employee productivity. After 100 hours of training,
productivity increased between 11% and 38%. Bartel (2000) also found that training
courses in 495 companies increased productivity by approximately 18% over 3 years.
Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014) 19
Ballot et al. (2006) found that training increased value added per worker in
France by 17.3% and in Sweden by 7.3%. In the United Kingdom, based on British
industry data for 1983–1996, Dearden et al. (2006) discovered that a 1% rise in workrelated
training increased added value per hour by roughly 0.6% and hourly wages by
approximately 0.3%.
3.3. Summary of Theories
Based on above, training theories, particularly those since 1992 have made a
significant contribution to understanding the training process. The scenistic method is
considered as one of the most important contributors to improving the value and
effectiveness of corporate training, and it represents an alternative to team training and
has had a major impact on the workplace.
According to training theories, it is necessary to choose the type of training
model that is most appropriate to the nature of the work being carried out. Training
model has implications for other branches like Situated learning or cognition. It
attempts to determine the appropriate training processes according to the nature of the
trainee’s work and also looks at the training process, the type of skills to be provided,
and ensures that team work is encouraged among trainees.
The appropriateness of trainees in relation to the training process is important as
well as their contribution to training effectiveness. This depends on their creativity and
their ability to enhance their role in decision-making and delegation, which is improved
by transformative learning theory. In general, action theory has helped to regulate the
behavior of individuals and to achieve training objectives.
Theories and literature relating to human resources and human resource
management emphasize the importance of human capital in organizations. According
to human capital theory, human capital is the most important form of capital in
organizations and can be enhanced through training. Human capital theory is
concerned with the return on training investment, and there is much evidence from
various countries to show that an increase in training reflects positively on
performance.
IV. TYPES OF TRAINING
4.1. On-The-Job and Off-The-Job Training
On-the-job training (OJT) is carried out in the workplace during the working
day; off-the-job training (OFJT) is carried out off-site and off-line. OFJT is the most
common form of training. It accounts for three to six times more expenditures than
that spent on OJT (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2004).
Unplanned OJT often merely helps to shorten the breaking-in period that
follows new employee hiring, transfer, or promotion. Unplanned OFJT can involve inservice
training where staff ‘‘huddle’’ down with their supervisors or colleagues to deal
with common problems. Planned OFJT, like planned OJT, is carefully designed to
utilize the time spent away from the job to a maximum. This type of training is suitable
when a large number of employees have a similar training requirement (Rothwell,
2005).
a. On-The-Job Training
On-the-job training is planned, structured, and mostly carried out at the trainee’s
workplace. It is sometimes carried out in a special on-site training area. In on-the-job
training, managers, supervisors, trainers and colleagues spend a large amount of time
20 Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014)
with trainees to teach previously determined skill sets. It can also involve training that
has no significant impact on productivity (Holden, 2001). In on-the-job training (OJT),
the work itself becomes an integral part of the training provided (Bas, 1989; Tews &
Tracet, 2008). 70% of Chinese managers receive on-the-job training as compared with
under 55% in North America, 45% in Great Britain and 21% in France (Cegos Group,
2011, 2012).
According to HR consultants SMR Tech Group, in Asian countries such as
Malaysia, 70% of instruction is conducted in the workplace, which indicates a shift to
more flexible, inexpensive, and high value training provision methods (Cegos Group,
2011, 2012). Petrescu and Simmons (2004) report that on-the-job training has a
considerable impact on job satisfaction, employee motivation and commitment.
b. Off-The-Job Training
Off-the-job training can involve group discussions, one-to-one tutorials, lectures,
reading, training courses and workshops (Kempton, 1995). According to Kempton
(1995), this type of training enables trainees to learn and apply new skills and
knowledge in a safe working context.
Not all performance problems can be solved by training that should not be a
substitute for motivation, the right tools or equipment, and the right supervision.
Training needs to be provided when employees lack the skills or information to work
productively when the right resources exist to draw up, impart, and follow up the
training and when training resolves performance problems. It is worthwhile providing
off-the-job training when a large number of staff have a similar training requirement
and when there are adequate skills and resources for the design and provision of
training (Rothwell, 2005). Planned OJT is appropriate when the criteria above are
complied with and when it is possible to minimize work distractions, when training at
work will not represent a threat to health, safety, or productivity and when there are
benefits to be obtained from training in real time.
4.2. Training delivery methods
a. Team Training
Through team training, people are trained to problem-solve more effectively in
groups, where observation and feedback are required during the training process
(Rasmussen, 1982; Forbush & Morgan, 2004). Team training is often used in the
industrial sector, government, and the army (Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992). Specific team
training strategies have been developed such as cross-training, coordination training
(Prince & Salas, 1993), leadership training (Tannenbaum et al., 1998), self-correction
(Smith-Jentsch et al., 1998), and distributed team training (Dwyer et al., 1999). Evidence
shows that team training functions well when it is theoretically driven. It concentrates
on the necessary skills, and gives trainees realistic opportunities for feedback (Salas &
Cannon-Bowers, 2001).
b. Mentoring
Training can also be delivered through mentoring. Mentors possess specific
knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) in problem solving, conflict resolution,
communication, defining objectives and planning (Hartenian, 2003).
c. Simulation
This is a popular way of delivering training and is commonly used by businesses,
educational establishments, and military (Jacobs & Dempsey 1993). Many simulators
Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014) 21
and virtual environments are able to mimic terrain, equipment breakdowns, and
movement, as well as vibratory and visual cues (Salas & Cannon- Bowers, 2001).
d. Seminars
These bring trainees together in small groups for regular meetings, which focus
on a specific topic, with trainees being expected to get actively involved (Webster’s
dictionary, 1992). Seminars help staff to become more familiar with their job functions
and more actively involved in them. They also enable them to handle problems that
arise on a regular basis (Holladay & Quinones, 2003).
e. Field Trips and Tours
These give staff the opportunity to experience situations away from the
workplace and to obtain practical information about their job functions (Kaushik,
1996). Few organizations use field trips as a component of training due to logistical
limitations, shortage of appropriate training materials, and unfamiliarity with the
outdoors as a suitable training environment (Mirka, 1970; Fido & Gayford, 1982).
However, they can be useful for increasing motivation, performance and skills. They
can help employees to get a more obvious understanding of job requirements (Kaushik,
1996).
f. E-Learning
This refers to the use of information technology to enhance and support
education and learning processes and provides a variety of learning strategies and
applications to exchange information and acquire skills (Candice, Sandra & John, 1998;
Sife, Lwonga & Sanga, 2007). Practical e-learning enables people to access to computer
and internet to access e–learning programs, course material, academic and nonacademic
staff and to obtain high quality information and qualifications at an
appropriate time and place (Safavi, 2008).
The appearance of e-learning at the beginning of the 21st century has
encouraged HR departments to provide very specific learning that effectively and
directly benefits learners. Through access to training from their computers, trainees can
also adapt training to their daily lives (Cegos Group, 2011, 2012).
E-learning is normally less expensive than other kinds of training. It is self-paced,
the content is consistent, it can be used anywhere in any time, it is easy to update,
manage and control for large numbers of people, and can assist organizations in
enhancing performance (Cantoni, Cellario & Ports, 2004).
In relation to the E-learning there are many academic and corporate training
institutions around the world currently employ learning management systems (LMS) to
enhance existing training methodologies with the introduction of virtual and mobile
learning environments (Gaurav Kumar & Anu Suneja, 2011). LMS involve a complex
combination of participant administration, lessons, courses, curriculum and file
management, certifications and report builders, recovery solutions, exams, quiz and
assignment design, evaluation, communication tools, progress monitoring and reports,
authentication and enrollment methodologies, extension modules, payment integration,
social network tools, and email notification systems (Gaurav Kumar & Anu Suneja,
2011).
According to the 2009 American Society for Training and Development
(ASTD), 91% of those surveyed learning management systems in their companies.
There is considerable expansion in e-learning which is expected to continue in the
foreseeable future. Studies carried out by Ambient Insight show that e-learning
represented spending of $27.1 billion in 2009, which was expected to double by 2014
22 Milhem et al./Journal of Accounting – Business & Management vol. 21 no. 1 (2014)
(ASTD/i4CP, 2009). Spending on e-learning technology was devoted to packaged
content, custom content development, training platforms and tool hosting, authoring
software and tools, and installation of training platforms (The Worldwide Market,
2010).
Although the range of technologies available has widened, the majority of
training continues to be instructor-led and based in the classroom. However,
organizations plan to increase the amount of training delivered via virtual classrooms,
self-paced e-learning, simulations and new collaborative training systems. ASTD and
i4CP have reported that 38% of companies have expanded their use of e-learning and
virtual provision and almost 60% expect to increase the proportion of e-learning in
their training provision (ASTD/i4CP, 2009).
V. CONCLUSION
According to the review of literature related to the training and strategy, it is
clear that the importance of developing training program in parallel with organization
strategy to achieve the desired objective of training program, in addition to that training
theories may help professional to adopt the right approach of training. In the same
time, it is important to choose the right way of training delivery method related to the
nature of work and organization objectives, in concluding it is important to note that
successful organizations usually invest more in training than other organizations
(Kraiger, 2003). On average, business organizations increased the number of training
hours delivered by 13.5% from 4,000hours in 2009 to 4,538 in 2010.The 750 U.S.
organizations studied devoted $48.9 billion to training 2010, an increase of 1.4 % from
the $48.2 billion spent in 2009. Salaries for training personnel totaled $27.4 billion of
the total $49 billion training budget, about the same as in 2009 but 18% lower than
2008 levels (Workforce Management, 2011). One third of organizations recorded in
increase in their training expenditure, one third recorded a decrease, and one-third
maintained training budgets as before. Large organizations, employing over 10,000
people, cut staff numbers, There is sufficient evidence that training leads to both
individual and organizational outcomes (Tharenou et al., 2007).Therefore, the attention
of training field must give more focus not only because the training activities are so
expensive but also because the effects of training are very important to organization
and to the employee in the same time
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