Journal of Intercultural Communication Research
Vol. 41, No. 3, November 2012, pp. 219–237
Intercultural New Media Studies:
The Next Frontier in Intercultural
Communication
Robert Shuter
New media (ICT’s) are transforming communication across cultures. Despite this
revolution in cross cultural contact, communication researchers have largely ignored the
impact of new media on intercultural communication. This groundbreaking article
defines the parameters of a new field of inquiry called Intercultural New Media Studies
(INMS), which explores the intersection between ICT’s and intercultural communication.
Composed of two research areas—(1) new media and intercultural communication
theory and (2) culture and new media—INMS investigates new digital theories of
intercultural contact as well as refines and expands twentieth-century intercultural
communication theories, examining their salience in a digital world. INMS promises
to increase our understanding of intercultural communication in a new media age and
is the next frontier in intercultural communication.
Keywords: Intercultural Communication & New Media; Intercultural New Media;
Culture & New Media
New media (ICT’s) are transforming communication across cultures. The internet
computer-mediated communication (CMC), social network sites (SNSs), mobile
phones, Skype, text messaging, on-line games (MMOGs), virtual worlds, and blogs
have dramatically increased contact between individuals and groups from different
cultures. No longer restricted primarily to face-to-face encounters, people worldwide
utilize ICT’s to communicate instantaneously with others regardless of geo-political
boundaries, time, or space.
Robert Shuter is Professor of Communication Studies in the Diederich College of Communication, Marquette
University, and Director of the Center for Intercultural New Media Research (www.interculturalnewmedia.
com). He is Immediate Past Chair of the International and Intercultural Communication Division for the
National Communication Association. Special thanks to the many JICR reviewers who provided invaluable
assistance. Correspondence to: Robert Shuter, Diederich College of Communication, Marquette University,
1131 W. Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53217. Email: robert.shuter@marquette.edu
ISSN 1747-5759 (print)/ISSN 1747-5767 (online) ß 2012 World Communication Association
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2012.728761
Despite this revolution in cross cultural contact, communication researchers
have largely ignored the impact of new media on intercultural communication and,
instead, concentrated their limited scholarship on how new media is utilized
in different cultures (Barker & Ota, 2011; Baron & Segerstad, 2010; Koc, 2006),
in what ways culture affects new media development and design (Campbell,
2007; DeGoede, Van Vianen, & Klehe, 2011), and how CMC is influenced by
culture (Chen, 2012; Gue´guen, 2008; Mollov, & Schwartz, 2010). What’s missing
from communication journals—except for Shuter’s (2011) guest edited forum on
intercultural new media research—are lines of research on how ICT’s affect
intercultural communication between individuals and groups. Research on this topic
challenges more than 50 years of intercultural communication knowledge and theory
rooted in twentieth-century paradigm of face-to-face interaction.
This article aims to accomplish two goals: (1) propose a new field of study called
Intercultural New Media Studies (INMS), which explores the intersection between
ICT’s and intercultural communication, and (2) introduce and situate the articles in
this special issue within intercultural new media studies. To achieve these goals, the
article will first define the parameters of intercultural new media studies, which
include (a) new media and intercultural communication theory and (b) culture and
new media. In exploring new media and intercultural communication theory, five
major theories of intercultural communication are closely scrutinized in light of
salient new media research to determine their efficacy and relevance in a new media
age. This detailed analysis concludes with an annotated summary of theoretical new
media implications and research directions for each of the five major intercultural
communication theories (ICC) and for future theories of ICC, Culture and new
media, the second area of INMS, is next explored and includes close analysis of
international/intercultural new media research trends in leading communication
journals and concludes with suggested future research directions in this area.
INMS: Parameters of a Field
New media and intercultural communication theory is the primary focus of INMS.
This area focuses on how ICT’s impact theories of communication between people
who do not share the same cultural backgrounds, often defined as national culture
(nation state) and co-culture (i.e. ethnicity and race) in early intercultural
communication research, but expanded contemporarily to include myriad cultures,
both within and across geo-political boundaries, as well as hybridized cultures that
have developed transnationally due to migration, diaspora, and time and space
reconfigurations in a digital age (Clothier, 2005; Dooly, 2011; McEwan & SobreDenton,
2011; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006). The secondary area of INMS, but still
considerably important, is the relationship between culture and new media; namely,
how does culture impact the social uses of new media within and across societies, and
in what ways do new media affect culture? There is scant research on the primary area
and significantly more data on the secondary area.
220 R. Shuter
New media and intercultural communication theory, the primary area of INMS,
may alter our understanding of the process of intercultural communication
by identifying new digital theories of intercultural contact as well as refining and
expanding extant ICC theories pertaining to such areas as acculturation/adaptation,
third culture development, intercultural competence, high context/low context
communication, co-cultural communication, cultural identity, intercultural dialogue,
culture shock/stress, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, racism, intercultural awareness,
intercultural conflict, speech codes, and intercultural relationship development.
Although there are limited data on the impact of new media on many of these
intercultural areas, the available research suggests that new media play a major role in
the ebb and flow of intercultural encounters, conceivably augmenting twentiethcentury
theories on communication across cultures. After an exhaustive review of
international/intercultural new media research, five seminal areas of intercultural
communication and their attendant theories were selected for close analysis to
determine their salience and efficacy in a new media age: cultural identity,
intercultural dialogue, third culture, acculturation, and intercultural competence.
New Media and Intercultural Communication Theory
This section examines the primary area of INMS—new media and intercultural
communication theory. It explores the possible effects of new media, and raises
important twenty-first-century questions, on five major theories of intercultural
communication and concludes with a summary of new media implications for
intercultural communication theory and research.
Cultural Identity. Cultural identity, according to social identity theory, is derived
from membership in social groups, a legacy of in-group identification that also
influences communication in social groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). It is co-created
and negotiated, according to Collier (2002), impacted by internal and external factors
that she calls avowal and ascription, and also affected by communication. This view
of cultural identity is rooted in twentieth-century assumptions about the origins of
the self in relationship to others; that is, social identity is based on group contact(s)
that is fixed in space and time, producing discernable social identity(ies) that varies
in salience depending on the social context(s). However, in a new media era of
perpetual contact (Katz & Aakhus, 2002), where individuals live in virtual spaces
with myriad others, is this perspective relevant and sufficient for explaining the
development and maintenance of cultural identity in the twenty-first century?
Singh (2010) argues that with the advent of the internet individuals are inducted
into ‘‘virtual cultures,’’ technological, homogenized entities not grounded in time
or space. Beniger (1987) refers to these virtual cultures as pseudo-communities as
opposed to traditional organic communities, which are bound by physical space and
rely on face-to-face communication. These virtual cultures can alter pre-existing
cultural identities, according to Singh, threatening traditional indigenous
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research 221
identifications that are co-created, negotiated, and developed in concert with social
identity theory.
Chen and Dai (2012) maintain that virtual communities challenge pre-existing
cultural identities because of asymmetrical power relationships that are inherent
in these communities. They argue that since Western culture has an implicit power
advantage even in cyberspace, virtual communities are not culture neutral and,
hence, may shape the development of new cultural identities, which may not turn out
to be hybrid constructs.
A hybridized cultural identity, according to Clothier (2005), can emerge from
being inducted into a virtual community composed of diverse people and cultural
influences that border and overlap each other, which Clothier calls a hybrid virtual
culture. Theoretically, hybrid virtual cultures and their attendant hybrid identities are
antagonistic to authority and cultural hegemony, according to Clothier. However,
because the West dominates cyberspace in so many significant ways (Chen & Dai,
2012)—linguistically through the English language, symbolically via the West’s
pervasive icons, and materially in Western created hardware and software—it is
unclear whether hybrid cultural identities are, indeed, possible and whether identity
co-creation and negotiation can truly occur in virtual communities consisting of
disparate, unrelated individuals.
It does appear, however, that when virtual communities are composed of culturally
homogenous members—in-group members that may or may not know one
another—these communities can support and reinforce pre-existing cultural
identities. Hopkins (2008) found that young Australian Muslim Turks, who felt
marginalized by Australian anti-Islamic feeling, successfully utilized new media to
connect with Muslims worldwide, reinforcing their identities and faith. Croucher
and Cronn-Mills (2011) discovered that French-Muslims used social networking
sites to maintain their Muslim identities, sometimes at the expense of their French
identities. Oh (2012) reports that second-generation Korean American adolescents
use transnational Korean media to enhance intra-ethnic bonds and support their
Korean identities. In fact, organic communities in diaspora appear to successfully
utilize social media and other new media to retain and reinforce their cultural
identities (Croucher, 2011).
There is also evidence that ethnic and racial groups in the United States utilize
social media to present their cultural identities in highly elaborate ways. Grasmuck,
Martin, and Shanyang (2009) found that African Americans, Latinos, Native
Americans, and Vietnamese construct Facebook profiles and narratives that proudly
and explicitly proclaim their cultural roots. Their self presentations not only reinforce
cultural identities but appear to be tacit opposition, according to the authors,
to social dynamics in the larger society that promote a color blind ideology. Hence,
unlike early internet research suggesting that cyberspace is culturally and racially
neutral (Turkle, 1995) — a virtual utopia where cultural identity and status
differences are minimized—this study and others suggest that ethno-racial identity
presentations in nonymous SNS’s empower minority and marginalized users
(Hu & Leung, 2003; Mehra, Merkel, & Bishop, 2004). Based on this review of
222 R. Shuter
available literature on new media and cultural identity, three theoretical new media
implications are offered regarding twenty-first century salience of past cultural
identity theory and research conducted in organic, face-to-face communities.
1: It is not clear how cultural identities are constructed in virtual communities.
Cultural identities may not necessarily be co-created or negotiated in virtual
communities according to the literature reviewed here. Negotiation and co-creation
require some degree of parity between parties, which may not be possible in virtual
communities since information technology—hardware, software, web design, and
new/social media—appear to privilege the West. Moreover, since virtual communities
are often pseudo-communities—sometimes anonymous and generally
disconnected from physical space and time—intimacy and engagement can be
quite limited, which are requisites for co-creation and negotiation.
2: How hybrid cultural identities are created in virtual and organic communities is
uncertain.
While the literature suggests that hybrid cultural identities can emerge in either
organic or virtual communities, it is unclear how this process unfolds. If co-created
and negotiated, how is hybridity created in virtual and organic communities when
traditions, symbols, and icons are co-opted by dominant and powerful cultural
forces? Similarly, how is hybridity realized in cyberspace when race, ethnicity and
culture are so pervasive?
3: The dynamics of maintaining cultural identity may be different in virtual
communities than organic ones.
The literature suggests that co-cultures and marginalized individuals may find more
and different opportunities for presenting and reinforcing their cultural identities
in virtual communities than organic ones. Cyberspace can empower disenfranchised
groups in unique and powerful ways that are differentiated from the dynamics
of face-to-face interaction. What are the dynamics of identity preservation in virtual
communities and how do they differ from organic communities?
These three theoretical implications suggest that considerable more research needs
to be conducted on construction and maintenance of cultural identity in a new media
era. Refinement and expansion of current cultural identity theories coupled with
development of new identity theories are strongly suggested by available intercultural
new media research.
Intercultural Dialogue and Third Culture
Intercultural dialogue is an important goal of intercultural contact and, as such, has
been widely examined. It is generally considered an ideal type of contact, requiring
openness and empathy, and resulting in a deep understanding of other (Ganesh &
Holmes, 2011). Unlike casual contact, intercultural dialogue, according to the
literature, requires communicators to be aware of, even challenge, their personal
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research 223
values and predispositions—albeit, any aspect of their background – that may
prevent a deep understanding of others. Similarly, to achieve intercultural
dialogue, communicators must be open to accepting differences—a deeply rooted
principle of dialogue founded on the work of Buber (1965), Gadamer (1989), and
Habermas (1987), twentieth-century theorists who wrote about dialogue in
organic communities. In fact, since theories, models and strategies for achieving
intercultural dialogue emerge from a twentieth-century face-to-face paradigm,
it is unclear whether dialogue literature—or dialogue itself—are applicable to the
virtual world.
Literature on virtual intercultural dialogue is limited, but the evidence suggests
that it is challenged by many of the same factors that affect dialogue in organic
communities. Hichang and Jae-Shin (2008) examined computer-mediated groups
composed of students from the United States and Singapore and discovered that
virtual intercultural collaboration was constrained by preexisting social networks and
intergroup boundaries formed in their respective countries and cultures. They found
that the students’ willingness to collaborate and share information with others were
affected by whether their virtual partners were member of their in-groups and shared
their cultural values. Similarly, Pfeil, Zaphiris, and Ang (2006) hypothesized correctly
that cultural values influence collaboration, discovering that collaborative authoring
patterns of Wikipedia reflected predominant cultural values of French, German,
Japanese, and Dutch authors. Utilizing Hofstede’s values scheme, this study identified
unique cultural styles of collaboration that correlated with individualism and
collectivism, power distance, and femininity and masculinity. The researchers
concluded that cultural differences found in the physical world are also in play in
virtual communities.
Although virtual collaboration may lead to intercultural dialogue, and perhaps is a
precursor to dialogue, collaboration is frequently missing requisite dialogic elements
like empathy and deep understanding. Hence, the question remains: Is intercultural
dialogue possible in the virtual world? Studies of third culture in cyberspace offer
some additional insight into this question.
The concept of third culture was originally developed by Casmir (1978, 1997;
Camir & Asuncion-Lande, 1989) who posited that individuals from different cultures
can optimize their relationship in a third culture which he described as the
‘‘. . . conjoining of their separate cultures’’ into a more inclusive culture ‘‘. . . that is
not merely the result of a fusion of two or more separate entities, but also the product
of the harmonization of composite parts into a coherent whole’’ (1989, p. 294).
Dialogue is necessary to develop a third culture, according to Casmir, which he
argues cannot be achieved without empathy and deep understanding of others.
Starosta and Olorunnisola (1998) add that individuals must be consciously aware
of their differences and capable of suspending judgment to build a third culture,
a product of convergence, integration, and mutual assimilation. Once achieved,
third culture provides an ideal climate to interact because it is mutually accepting,
supportive, and cooperative.
224 R. Shuter
Although third cultures are difficult to create in the physical world, some research
suggests that they may be more achievable in virtual communities. McEwan and
Sobre-Denton (2011) argue that the ease of technological access to cultural others
combined with reduced social and economic costs significantly increase the
probability of developing third cultures in the virtual world. Virtual communities,
unlike organic ones, do not require leaving ones domicile to be an active member
nor are they plagued by face threats due to social errors, according to the authors.
In fact, new media provides users with technological tools to manage social
distance, which McEwan and Sobre-Denton suggest increase cultural risk taking and
experimentation, leading more readily to virtual third cultures.
There is also evidence, however, that third cultures are difficult to construct in the
virtual world. Nelson and Temples (2011) examined graduate students’ attempts to
negotiate memberships in multiple on-line communities during an international
exchange program. The students experienced numerous cultural issues in constructing
on-line relationships in international virtual communities, leading the authors to
conclude that the process of what they called ‘‘reconciliation,’’ which is comparable
to third culture building, is complex and sometimes impossible in cyberspace.
Interestingly, Steinkuenier and Williams (2006) discovered that while on-line games
provide what they refer to as a ‘‘third space’’ for participants—a virtual dimension
where people can socialize informally—these spaces are generally useful for bridging
social capital and do not usually provide deep emotional support.
While data are inconclusive on whether intercultural dialogue or third culture
can actually occur in virtual communities, the research does suggest that the use
of multiple new media technologies in a virtual community may increase the
emotional attachment of participants and, hence, the prospect for dialogue. Wang
(2012) found that Facebook is a viable platform for building cross-cultural
friendships among Taiwanese and American university students; however, to retain
these friendships after the completion of a project, other Web 2.0 applications are
necessary. Dooly (2011) also discovered that the effectiveness and depth of on-line
cross-cultural relationships between two groups of student teachers in Spain and
the United States were affected by the number and nature of communication
platforms utilized, including Skype, Moodle, Voicethread and Second Life. Finally,
Develotte and Leeds-Hurwitz (in press) successfully facilitated intercultural
dialogue between French and U.S. students utilizing desktop video conferencing,
including both video and chat. They have also used MSN Messenger, Skype, and
Adobe Connect to achieve similar results. In light of this literature review on new
media and intercultural dialogue/third culture, four theoretical new media
implications are now presented about twenty-first century relevance of past
intercultural dialogue/third culture theory and research grounded in organic, faceto-face
communities.
1. Intercultural dialogue and third culture building, as defined in face-to-face literature,
may be difficult to achieve in virtual communities.
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research 225
The on-line literature examined in this section suggests that empathy and deep
understanding— prerequisites for dialogue and third culture building—may not be
readily achievable in the virtual world.
2. Intercultural dialogue and third culture building may be governed by different
processes in virtual communities than organic ones.
The reviewed research suggests that factors like anonymity and controlling social
distance, which are inimical to face-to-face dialogue and third culture building, may
help produce both outcomes in the virtual world.
3. It may be necessary to utilize multiple new media platforms to achieve intercultural
dialogue and third culture in a virtual world.
Research suggests that a mix of new media platforms, including on-line and video
chat/conferencing, may increase the chances for achieving intercultural dialogue and
third culture in virtual communities.
4. External factors from the physical world that affect intercultural dialogue and third
culture building may also impinge on both outcomes in the virtual world.
Social factors from the physical world, including stereotyping, predispositions,
and different cultural values, may affect the development of intercultural dialogue
and third culture in the virtual world.
These four theoretical implications suggest that since intercultural dialogue and
third culture may be regulated by different processes in the physical and virtual
worlds, scholars need to conduct research on the ways these processes differ.
This type of research should yield important insights on how new media affects
intercultural dialogue/third culture and whether either one is achievable in virtual
spaces.
Acculturation and Intercultural Competence
Communication research abounds on how people adapt to new cultures, and
much of the data examine the impact of interpersonal interaction and mass media
on acculturation. Young Kim (1988, 2001), the leading communication scholar on
acculturation, provides an integrative model to explain how sojourners’ background
and personality, as well as the quality and quantity of their interpersonal encounters,
influence cultural adaptation. Kim found that positive social communication in the
host culture, combined with reasonable and successful ethnic support, provide
cultural knowledge and skills and emotional stability to acculturate successfully.
She also integrates mass media into her model, arguing that acculturation is
influenced by the nature, type, and frequency of media consumption patterns.
Additional researchers have also found that host culture social communication and
mass media play a significant role in acculturation as do ethnic social support and
media from a sojourner’s culture of origin (Durham, 2004; Khan, 1992; Raman &
Harwood, 2008). Although there is a good deal of research on the effects of social
226 R. Shuter
communication and mass media on acculturation, there are scant data on new media
and acculturation.
Available new media studies suggest that the internet and selected on-line communities
facilitate the process of acculturation. For example, Ye (2005) found that Chinese
international students who utilize on-line ethnic support groups composed of other
Chinese students experience significantly less acculturative stress and more emotional
support. Ye’s finding confirms Ying and Liese’s (1991) early investigation that while
on-line ethnic support groups provide important emotional support, they do not help
significantly with learning skills necessary to be successful in a new culture.
Jiali (2006) examined traditional and on-line support networks among Chinese
international students and discovered that students who received support from both
on-line ethnic groups and interpersonal networks in the host culture tended to
experience fewer social difficulties in acculturation. Further, Chinese international
students who sustained their on-line interpersonal networks in their home country
had fewer mood disturbances during the adaptation process. According to Jiali
(2006), Chinese who newly arrived to a culture tended to report higher support levels
from on-line ethnic groups than those who had been living in the culture for a longer
time period. Confirming and extending Jiali’s (2006) findings, Chen (2010) found
that the longer immigrants lived in a host culture, the less likely they surfed home
country websites and the more apt they were to communicate on-line with residents
of the host culture, which facilitated their acculturation.
Surprisingly, there is very limited data on the influence of social networking sites
on acculturation. Croucher and Cronn-Mills (2011) found that the use of social
networking sites among French Muslims reinforced their Islamic identities rather
than their French identities, which complicated the adaptation process. In a
conceptual essay, Croucher (2011) hypothesized that increased use of social
networking sites composed of people from the same culture may serve as an
obstacle to acculturation. Utilizing cultivation and ethnic group vitality theories,
Croucher argued that increased exposure to homogenous social networking sites tend
to increase in-group identification and negatively affect cultural adaptation.
Croucher’s research on social networking sites contrasts with studies reviewed here
on the positive effects of on-line ethnic support networks on acculturation.
Perhaps, social networking sites provide a unique portal for ethnic networking that
distinguish them from other types of on-line ethnic encounters.
Not only is acculturation affected by face-to-face and on-line support networks,
but it is also influenced by the individual’s level of intercultural competence, often
measured by awareness of and openness to cultural differences as well as the abilities
and skills necessary to successfully navigate a new culture (Wiseman & Koester,
1993). While Kim (2001) and others have found that individuals learn about new
cultures incrementally, largely through pre-departure preparation, social communication
in the host culture, and mass media, there is also evidence that on-line
encounters can increase intercultural competence and enhance acculturation.
Studies on internet-mediated second language learning suggest that on-line
international exchanges accelerate language acquisition and intercultural
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research 227
competence. Chun (2011) found that on-line contact between Germans and
American university students learning one another’s languages significantly increased
their cultural awareness and intercultural communication skills. Belz (2005) reported
that internet-mediated language learning between Germans and Americans
dramatically improved the participants’ ability to use questions to ascertain cultural
information, which they argue is an essential component of intercultural
competence. While investigating the effect of blogs on second language learning
for Spanish and American students, Elola and Oskoz (2008) discovered that blogging
in newly acquired languages improved both groups’ intercultural competence.
Despite the popularity of virtual gaming worlds like Second Life, World of War
Craft, EverQuest, Final Fantasy, and Xbox Live, there are very limited data on
whether virtual worlds affect intercultural competence and, hence, acculturation
potential. In an important study, Diehl and Prins (2008) explored the cross-cultural
exchanges of Second Life (SL) participants, evaluating both their real- and virtualworld
interactions. They found that SL enhanced the participants’ ‘‘intercultural
literacy’’ by promoting intercultural friendships, second language acquisition, and
openness to diverse cultures, practices, and attitudes. In a related study, Ward (2010)
found that the acculturation strategies utilized in the physical world are also
employed when participants’ culturally adapt to virtual gaming worlds, which suggest
that this type of cyber-experience may enhance skills that increase acculturation
potential. The studies reviewed here on new media and acculturation raise six
provocative theoretical implications about the role of new media in acculturation and
intercultural competence.
1. CMC appears to play a positive role in acculturation and intercultural competence.
Available data suggest that on-line exchanges between members of ethnic groups
provide important emotional support and generally play a positive role in
acculturation. In contrast, on-line cross-cultural exchanges during training sessions
for second language acquisition can increase intercultural competence, which can
increase acculturation potential.
2. Virtual gaming worlds may play a useful role in improving acculturation potential
and increasing intercultural competence.
Limited data suggest that participating in Second Life may improve intercultural
skills that are essential for intercultural competence and successful cultural
adaptation. Data also suggest that participants of virtual gaming worlds may utilize
many of the same acculturation strategies that are used in the physical world.
3. Social media seems to affect acculturation and intercultural competence, but the data
are too limited to speculate on the types of effects.
Social media (SNS) —including Facebook, Twitter, and My Space as well as
culturally indigenous brands like QQ (China), Orkut (India) and Weibo (China) —
have been virtually unexamined in terms of their effects on acculturation and
intercultural competence. Limited data suggest that ethnic social media may
negatively affect acculturation, but it is unclear how cross-cultural uses of SNSs affect
228 R. Shuter
acculturation and intercultural competence. Do social networking sites increase
intercultural contact and, hence, improve acculturation potential or do they merely
enable users to communicate with in-groups who share their cultural backgrounds
and limit acculturation? (Shuter, 2011).
4. The interplay between new media, mass media, and acculturation is unexplored and
requires careful analysis.
Given the interactive and personal nature of new media, could they have more
impact on acculturation and intercultural competence than traditional mass media?
Does frequency of new media use impact the potential effects of mass media on
acculturation and intercultural competence?
5. The effects of mobile devices on acculturation and intercultural competence have not
been explored, and given their omnipresence in the twenty-first century, this new media
platform warrants examination.
Mobile phones, smart phones, and i-Pads are ubiquitous and powerful. Cell phones
are more plentiful worldwide than are internet connections, and more people text
message and mobile call than engage in computer-mediated communication (Shuter
& Chattopadhayay, 2010; Shuter, 2012). Yet, there is no published research on text
messaging (SMS), mobile calling—albeit, any application of a mobile device—and
acculturation and intercultural competence.
6. Since new media are not included in acculturation theories developed in the twentieth
century, these theories may not adequately explain how people acculturate in the twentyfirst
century.
It is important to revisit and reconfigure major theories of acculturation to ensure
that they sufficiently include new media. Moreover, how individuals acculturate
in on-line communities and virtual worlds may provide new insights into the process
of acculturation in the physical world.
These six theoretical implications suggest that although new media may play a
significant role in acculturation and intercultural competence, new media platforms
may have differential effects on each of them. As a result, future research on new
media and acculturation/intercultural competence can be guided by these six
theoretical implications, exploring how each new media platform, including social
media, CMC, and mobile devices, affect acculturation and intercultural competence.
In concluding this section of the article on the possible effects of new media on five
major areas of intercultural communication, it should be noted that there are
additional important areas of intercultural communication and their attendant
twentieth-century theories that may need to be refined or revised in light of available
intercultural new media research. For example, scattered new media studies on
stereotyping (Chia-I, 2008; Gue´guen, 2008; Nakamura, 2009), high context/low
context communication (Pflug, 2011; Richardson & Smith, 2007; Wu¨rtz, 2005),
culture shock/stress (Karlsson, 2006; Martinez, 2010), intercultural relationship
development (Tokunaga, 2009; Young-ok & Hara, 2005), and intercultural conflict
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research 229
(Mollov & Schwartz, 2010; St. Amant, 2002) are too limited to draw any theoretical
conclusions except that there is much research needed to determine whether
twentieth century ICC theories adequately explain intercultural transactions in a
digital age.
The 13 theoretical new media implications presented in this section of the article
serve as a starting point for conducting future research on new media and
intercultural communication theory, the primary area of intercultural new media
studies. The article turns now to the impact of culture on the social uses of new
media, the secondary research area of INMS.
Culture and New Media: Secondary Area of Intercultural New Media Studies
Culture and new media are conjoined. Not only does culture affect the social uses
of new media, but new media appears to change culture. Both areas are important
dimensions of INMS and, unlike the previous section on new media and intercultural
communication theory, there has been more research conducted here. In addition,
there has been growing research interest on the effects of new media on cultural
traditions and communication patterns in societies across the globe.
Early research on culture and new media focused on CMC and explored such
topics as intercultural communication and CMC (Ma, 1996), country differences in
CMC (Yoon, 1996), CMC and the rise of electronic global culture (Ess, 2001; Jones,
2001), and the utilization of CMC in student exchange programs and multicultural
classrooms (Colomb & Simutis, 1996; Meagher & Castanos, 1996). More recently,
scholars have examined the impact of culture on the social uses of additional new
media platforms including mobile phones (Baron & Segerstad, 2010; Campbell, 2007;
Schroeder, 2010), text messaging (Ling, 2008; Shuter & Chattapadhyay, 2010;
Spurgeon & Goggin, 2007), social media (Barker & Ota, 2011; Lin, Peng, M. Kim,
S. Kim, & LaRose, 2012; Shu-chuan & Sejung Marina, 2011), blogs (Elola & Oskoz,
2008; Karlsson, 2006), virtual worlds (Diehl & Prins, 2008; Green & Singleton,
2007; Wang, Walther, & Hancock, 2009), and multiplayer on line games (Chia-I,
2008; Nakamura, 2009; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006; Ward, 2010).
As new media studies have grown exponentially in the twenty-first century so, too,
has research increased on country variations in the social uses of new media, the focal
point of most cross-cultural new media investigations. In fact, after an exhaustive
analysis of all published studies from 2005 to 2011 in New Media and Society (NMS)
and the Journal of Computer Mediated Communication (JCMC) —arguably, the two
major communication journals on new media—it was found that both journals
published 293 international new media studies, and just 41 of these included more
than one country in the investigation. Since 86% (252) are single-country studies,
they are overwhelming intracultural not intercultural examinations of the social uses
of new media.
While there are myriad journals that publish new media research, JCMC and NMS
are excellent indicators of communication research trends on culture and new media.
A close analysis of 293 international new media articles in both journals reveal
230 R. Shuter
the following trends for the frequency of research on major platforms as well as
percentage of studies aimed at theory validation, either mass media or new media
theories.
1. Most of the international articles (195:66%) are single culture investigations of
computer-mediated communication (i.e. on-line exchanges, websites, internet,
instant messaging).
2. Mobile phone research (calling and text messaging) conducted internationally
is the next most frequently researched platform (43:15%), followed by social
networking sites (17:6%), multiplayer on-line games (15:5%), blogging (13:4%),
and, finally, a few scattered studies on email and You Tube, with zero
international articles on virtual worlds.
3. The overwhelming majority of international new media investigations (240:82%)
are theory validation studies that primarily attempt to refine new media or mass
media theories, with limited analysis of socio-cultural implications of new media.
Interestingly, platform research trends identified in JCMC and NMS are also
supported by international studies on text messaging (Shuter & Chattopadhyay,
2010; Shuter, 2012) and mobile phones (Shuter & Chattopadhyay, 2012). Recently,
communication scholars have also confirmed research trend three—the limited
availability of socio-cultural critiques of new media, society, and intercultural
communication (Cheong, Martin, & MacFadyen, 2012).
Given these three research trends on culture and new media, there are many
avenues for future investigations to optimize its’ inclusion in intercultural new media
studies. Conceptually, there needs to be significantly more emphasis on intercultural
new media research that takes a socio-cultural perspective. This translates into new
media studies that explore topics such as indigenous (i.e. country, co-culture,
hybridity) cultural patterns of new media use, critical analyses of new media and
society, and the impact of culture on the social uses of new media. A socio-cultural
perspective should also produce studies that develop, refine or extend cultural
theories of new media communication including, but not limited to, cultural values
and the social uses of new media, co-cultural theory and new media behavior, and
socio-cultural factors and cultural preferences of new media platforms. The studies
contained in this special issue include multiple examples of new media research
grounded in a socio-cultural perspective.
Hasler and Friedman’s exploration of avatar use in a virtual world, Lee and
Taniguichi’s study of fat talk on Facebook, and Smith and Cooley’s investigation of
face-ism on Facebook are incisive examples of research that explore socio-cultural
influences on social uses of new media. Hasler and Friedman found that Asian avatar
dyads in a virtual world interact at larger distances than European avatar dyads
which, they report, is consistent with socio-cultural expectations in the physical
world. Lee and Taniguichi argue that values differences between American and
Japanese cultures contribute to the participants’ significantly different reactions to
Facebook posts about personal appearance. And Smith and Cooley report that while
men generally display more facial prominence (face-ism) than women in personal
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research 231
photos posted on Facebook, national culture also plays a prominent role in face-ism
on SNSs, with some countries displaying more face-ism gaps between genders
than others. In different but important ways, these studies enhance understanding
of the tight relationship between the cultures of the physical and virtual worlds,
demonstrating how crucial it is to consider and identify socio-cultural factors when
analyzing the social uses of new media.
The social uses of new media are also influenced by global socio-cultural factors
unrelated to any specific country, according to studies in this special issue by Waters
and Lo on cross-cultural organizational differences on Facebook, and Ling, Canright,
Bjelland, Enge-Monsen, and Sundsoy on core mobile phone social networks.
Waters and Lo report that organizational uses of SNSs are only minimally affected
by traditional cultural values, concluding that global, virtual cultures may be
developing. Ling et al. found, unexpectedly, that core mobile phone social networks
are not different in developed and developing countries, indicating that global
socio-cultural factors, unrelated to world region or co-culture, may be driving social
uses of mobile phones.
Based on the preceding three research trends in JCMC and NMS, it’s also
important to conduct significantly more intercultural new media investigations that
include two or more cultures and examine a broader range of new media platforms.
While single country investigations are important because they reveal intracultural
patterns of new media use, multiple culture investigations are also essential for
generating comparative cultural data on the social uses of new media. In addition
to continuing intercultural research on computer-mediated communication, it is
important to examine, with much greater frequency, the social uses of additional new
media platforms across cultures, particularly mobile phones, text messaging, social
networking sites, multiplayer on-line games, and virtual worlds. With an abundance
of intercultural data on these and other platforms, researchers will have a better
understanding of the socio-cultural dynamics that drive the social uses of new media.
Lastly, future studies on culture and new media should focus more on generating
intercultural theories on the social uses of new media. The current trend of
conducting mass media or new media theory validation studies is no substitute for
formulating and refining culture-based new media theories that detail and explain
socio-cultural influences on the social uses of new media. There are a few culturebased
new media theories, including Cheong et al. (2012) critical new media theory
and Shuter and Chattopadhyay’s (2012) socio-cultural values theory of mobile phone
activity. Both theories address the inextricable relationship between socio-cultural
forces and new media, with Cheong et al. focusing on power and new media, and
Shuter and Chattopadhyay exploring cultural values and mobile phone activity.
Conclusion
This essay conceptualizes the parameters of a new field of inquiry called INMS, which
consists of two areas: (1) new media and intercultural communication theory and
(2) culture and new media. Exploring the intersection of new media and intercultural
232 R. Shuter
communication theory has the potential to refine and expand twentieth-century
theories of intercultural communication grounded in a face-to-face paradigm.
In light of current intercultural new media investigations, five major ICC theories
critiqued in this article need to be reexamined and, potentially, reconfigured, possibly
resulting in new or modified ICC theories more applicable to a digital era. Thirteen
theoretical implications are offered in this article to guide future research on new
media and intercultural communication theory.
Culture and new media, the secondary area of INMS, focuses on the interdependent
relationship between culture and new media, a fertile topic of inquiry
delineating the influence of socio-cultural forces on the social uses of new media
within and across cultures. Three major research trends on culture and new media
are also provided in the article, along with suggested future research directions
to develop this area of INMS. Intercultural new media studies promises to expand
our understanding of intercultural communication in a new media age and is, truly,
the next frontier in intercultural communication.
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