ZUR 393k: Effects of Mass Media Lazarsfeld and the EMPIRICAL TRADITION • definition/background • initial research model (underlying assumptions & research questions) • refinements: audience & messages • overall conclusions (1958) EMPIRICISM systematic and objective investigation using experimentation or observation to test a hypothesis Early Effects Research in Communication • Bureau for Applied Research at Columbia University (NYC) • background in psychological measurement Paul Lazarsfeld (1901 - 1976) early empiricism arises as a response to: 1. mass society theory 2. propaganda propaganda “During the 1930s world events seemed to continually confirm the truth of mass society ideas. In Europe, reactionary and revolutionary political movements used media in their struggles for political power. German Nazis introduced propaganda techniques that ruthlessly exploited the power of new media technology. These practices seemed to permit political leaders to easily manipulate public attitudes and beliefs. All across Europe, totalitarian leaders like Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini rose to political power and were able to exercise seemingly total control over vast populations” (D. McQuail, 1995). World War I (1914-1918) World War II (1939-1945) Contemporary Examples & Parodies Magic Bullets • messages too powerful to resist • “strawman argument” First decision for empirical research: what can be studied as an effect? DURATION Short Term Long Term LOCUS Individual Society co$tly, difficult to sustain, counter to rules for academic success “grossly speculative” x x x DURATION Short Term Long Term LOCUS Individual Society Knowledge Attitudes Behavior Models of communication: Transmission Model S ----------(message)----------> R • communication is initiated by the sender • effects are experienced by the receiver Underlying assumptions of transmission model: Research Topic: prime-time television dramas http://www.mediaguru.cz/ 2015/10/atentat-poprve-840- tisic-labyrint-pres-125-milionu/ #.Vh41NKJMonJ 1. To study “WHO” is to engage in CONTROL ANALYSIS “The social effects of media will vary as the system of ownership and control varies. In the US, . . . . big business finances the production and distribution of mass media. And, all intent aside, he who pays the piper generally calls the tune. Since the mass media are supported by great business concerns geared into the current social and economic system, the media contribute to the maintenance of that system” (Lazarsfeld, p. 107). WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM and with WHAT EFFECT? 2. To study “SAYS WHAT” is to engage in CONTENT ANALYSIS • create a numerical description WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM and with WHAT EFFECT? 3. To study “TO WHOM” is to engage in AUDIENCE ANALYSIS • research method used: surveys & polls • goal: gather demographic information plus attitudes/opinions WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM and with WHAT EFFECT? http://www.mediaguru.cz/2015/10/atentat-poprve-840-tisic-labyrint-pres-125-milionu/#.Vh41NKJMonJ NOTE: rating = % of TV household population share = % of TVs in use at the time http://www.businessinsider.com/cord-cutters-and-the-death-of-tv-2013-11 http:// www.the wrap.com /tv- richest- and- poorest- shows- modern- family- bobs- burgers/ http://www.marketingcharts.com/television/tv-dramas- leading-genre-for-prime-time-viewing-ad-dollars-21863/ WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM and with WHAT EFFECT? 4. To study “and with WHAT EFFECT” is to engage in EFFECT ANALYSIS • research method: interview (although not wholly trusted) http://www.theguardian.com/voluntary-sector-network/2011/jan/14/the-benefits-of-focus-groups Voting Studies Combined multiple research questions and methods: 3 refinements to conceptions of audience: 1. individual differences 1. individual differences • selective exposure • selective attention • selective interpretation • cognitive dissonance • selective recall SELECTIVITY 2. social groups 3 refinements to conceptions of audience: • gender • SES • ethnicity • level of education • group membership attempt to predict message effects based on: 3. social relationships (2-step flow or supplementation) S---------------->R/S--------------> R 3 refinements to conceptions of audience: Re-examination of media messages • concept of “magic keys” replaces concept of “magic bullet” • features in a message that help us decide whether or not to pay attention to it and how to interpret it • headline size, vocal inflections, word choice, credibility of source, organization of message, use of emotional appeals (e.g. fear) Conclusions / Klapper • no case can be made for simple causeeffect relationships between a person’s paying attention to a media message and his/her beliefs, attitudes, or behavior. • many studies have found that messages conveyed by the media do have effects on their audiences, but these effects are relatively minor. Conclusions / Klapper • The primary influence of the media is to reinforce--not change--existing attitudes and behaviors.