• com c engage brain Need a study break? Get a break on the study materials designed for your course! Find Flashcards, Study Guides, Solutions Manuals and more ... Visit www.cengagebrain.com/studytools today to find discounted study tools! CENGAGE Learning- To learn more about Cengage Learning, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com ISBN-ID: WfiS-MSIlb-S 978128545996790000 4240770811 DEVELOPMENT THROUGH LIFE A Psychosocial Approach N/NEWMAN CHAPTER later adulthood (60 to 75 years) 13 «4 gL^D Y reflections on retirement StUc*ies atT 'S Professor Emerita of Psychology and Women' the Taos / State Umersity, Brandywine and co-founder or tion'st icieSt'tute' focusing on the integration of social construe-e*Perier^ and Professional practice. Here she reflects on the y retiring. granted ^d°P'e believe that health is something one takes for tfleirarrT)0r dle a§ecl people worry as they start to see chirks in ^age to I. °'der pe°P,e leam t0 ac|JUSL By and larS9'people Ca0acities it W°"'even w'th ma'or cecrements n th(;ir y°uthful "y 'n one^ 'S 3 800cl ides t0 eat wo|l sleep long, and laugh heart-s°3n. Keeni areer days as extra insurance against fallinS apart t0° Overa|| rf Up800d nabits helps in retirement as well. ten Vears a 'S n°f tnat d'fferent for me todayfrom what lf was ' °ft8n Worri° ' d0nt envy people wh0 have 3 fu" ('me l0b 3t a"' fu|lt'me em , why s°me people are still carrying the burdens of °ut right nl °yment when they don't really need to. it's snowing j ■ ■ '--i it vvi IGI I LI ley UUfI t I cony i — n°w. and the highway is packed with cars going about D Reflections on Retirement eVe,opmental Tasks cAsPtin8 One's Life pe study: Goal Adjustment in Later Adulthood demoting intellectual Vigor D d,recting Energy to New Roles and Activities sloping a point 0f view About Death study: Morrie Schwartz Reflects on His Views About Death The Psychosocial Crisis: Integrity Versus Ue$Pair lntegrity Despair e Central Process, introspection 10 miles an hour. In those cars are people going home from work, tense and tired, and eagerly awaiting the chance to kick off their shoes and relax with their loved ones. (At least that is my fantasy.) And here I am, writing up the joys of not being out there, struggling to gel home. I'm already home. (Gergen, 2012, pp. 307-308) CASE ANALYSIS Using What You Know 1. Based on what you have read about the nature of work and career development, explain how the concept of retirement might be viewed differently and have different meaning depending on one's stage of life, including early adulthood, middle adulthood, and later adulthood. 2. Speculate about how retirement contributes to Mary's sense of control over her life and general well-being. 3. List some reasons why oeople might continue to work well into their later adulthood. Explain how work might contribute to life satisfaction, personal identity, health, and financial and psychosocial well-being in later life? How might continuing to work undermine these domains? The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core Pathology Wisdom Disdain Applied Topic: Retirement income Loss Adjustment to Retirement case study: Anna Quindlen Writes About Retiring as "Stepping Aside" for the Next Generation of Writers The Future of Retirement Chapter Summary Key Terms 527 528 ' CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) Examine the construct of life satisfaction in later adulthood and analyze factors associated with subjective well-being. Define intellectual vigor, and describe factors that promote it in later life-ate evidence about the interaction of heredity and environment on intellige in later life. Explain the process of redirecting energy to new roles and activities, with special focus on role gain, such as grandparenthood; role loss, such as wi hood; and new opportunities for leisure. Summarize the development of a point of view about death. Define and explain the psychosocial crisis of integrity versus despair, the cen tral process of introspection, the prime adaptive ego quality of wisdom, an the core pathology of disdain. Apply theory and research to understanding the process of adjustment to retirement. in this chapter and the next, we consider the challenges, changes, and new avenues lor development in later life. This chapter focuses on the period from 60 to 75; the next chapter focuses on the years from 75 to the end of life. The krench refer to the years from 60 onward as the troisieme age, the third stage of life (Rubenstein, 2002). One can think ol the first 10 years of life as a period of construction and learning, when many avenues are open and the person is building the skills and knowledge to engage in the roles of adulthood. The second 30 years, from 30 to 60, are a period of enactment, when commitments established during identity formation are translated into roles and relationships. In this period, life is shaped by the interaction ol work, family, and community demands and expectations. The individual strives to achieve personal ambitions and goals and to meet cultural expectations lor maturity while coping with planned and unexpected changes in adjoining systems. The final 50 years an- a period ol reinvention. The integrating theme of later adulthood is a search lor personal meaning. For many in . ;tage ol life brings a gradual release from the daily demands "I work and lamily and, depending on ones health and resources, provides the opportunity to invent a new life itrui inn'. This i i a tiiin- when one Ian.", both significant ad-vcrsily and great joy. Psychosocial theory assumes that new opportunities for growth emerge at each life stage. In strong contrast to the stereotype ol aging as an undesirable process associated with accumulated deficits and decline, these chapters highlight .....linuous growth through coping and adaptation. Like each of the preceding stages, later adulthood is marked by stressors, risks, and forces that can disrupt growth. However, the epigenetic principle implies that one cannot understand the lull unfolding ol human life without appreciating the beliefs, practices, and social relationships of ose ,n later adulthood and old age. Moreover, the independence of the stages in a human life story suggests thj the ways m which older adults function and are treated *J ave immediate impact on the psychosocial development o< « v'duals in all the earlier periods of life. The courage and v»Ul.iy o older adults are sources of inspiration that v children and younger adults to continue facing the M n\ e'' daily lives with optimism, men, ' S0Cia1' motional, and intellectual devel°P "ate are intricately interrelated during later life. The one T'"1 °UI 011 -l-cts of aging, the g«**£ ; t,a'«n for the (act that patterns of aging are nflg vusal nor irreversible. ForeLnple, although man/O^ o beC°me m°* -dentary and lose aerobic o u s commue to perform strenuous labor and remain n ™£™ disease and respiratory difficulties. Many Hfc c* We condhS \^ aCCelerate the a^ P^unvi-ronment n ' U°h aS access l" :> stimulating social e ™f™. Participation in a program of physical activity, J ■ ■ ■ — a intellectl keep in functions S ' lnCreaSe phySiCal an 1 nng kowe & a] |(, , when I .V LU" differences in P^sical and mental he " 1 inking about patterns of growth in later adulthood, in 2oio'h"1 ^ Unit"' States who were 65 y«f°\ years or life expectancy was an additional U- . I Cn>,and an additional 20 3 years for women ^ n v " '"rMca,lh ^ties. 2013, Table 7) M£ "C;,IS ,n station, preventive ^ k;l1 ^atments and technologies have allowed n P-P e o experience a vigorous late "adulthood today * are f ' < ^ A« a result, more and more |*oP, Iceh1 6 ^P^nul tasks of later adulthood ** Developmental Tasks | 529 Developmental Tasks tasks dir-..... ; likely 10 conf** Ussed hcrc reflect major themes that are ancl achievl"1^1'1^C ,ater>'cars of lj''e: accepting ones ute 'ectUal vi 3 sense ''le satisfaction; promoting inteJ-a1d devel °r' 'cc'irecting energy to new roles and activities; Sllfigcst newTg 'l P°inl °' View ab°Ul death' TheSe themes lities ql? barriers to adaptation as well as new opportu-^ytnak 'IfeS 'n memor>' ancl speed of neural processing Ru|e log 6 accomplishment of daily tasks more difficult. "e* kinds r ''1e c'cal1' 'ovec' ones stimulate needs for also ConyS °' suPPorl and changes in daily lifestyle. They is Under ^ 8 Concrete message thai a new period of life Ptychol Success in these tasks requires considerable em and filcal effort. As the more structured roles of par-"ndnewW° Dec°me less demanding, a person has to rJai'>' life r°Urces ol personal meaning and a new pattern to teverenc " SOme cuItures> aging takes place in a context of '"strut,,6 'UlC' high re8ard. which makes the loss of certain K_ ntal activities less significant. In other cultures, >W on autonomy, instrumentality, and achievement 0,1,1 a challer-.........r„, reservation ol dignity "'late Henging context lor the preset Accepting One's Life 0BjECTIVE1 Fxaminetne construct of life satisfaction s'ater adulthood and analyze factors associated with S*Je«ive well-being. 0lle Ce,)| the 1.,e.S'gnifK'anl challenges of aging is learning to ac '*asc nf i H Uy °' ones "fe and formulate a vision of ihis new , lateradulthood. vou ever afraid to grow old?" I asked. »1; , ,I<»»Waging.■ s'ayed slniPle. As you grow, you learn more. If you Mi w ,Wcnly-two, you'd always be as ignorant as kncnv j * a' twenty-iwo. Aging is not just decay you you>re (r STOwth. lis more than the negative lhat der!lianT'nS l° die'iLs a,so lhe positive thai you un-life (je 11 y°u're going to die, and that you live a better caUse0fit."(AIbom, 1997, p. 118) 'a'lures j61 aclul|h»o(L evidence about one's successes and Cllilclrear" raaJ°r tasks of middle adulthood—marriage, VVilk'h to a"C' vvorl<—has begun to accumulate. Data by u Pro ,^UC'ge one's adequacy in these areas are abundant. a Jij/i - °' acccPtmg one's past life as it has been may COrPorat °U Personal challenge. One must be able to in-"ito 0n ,e certain areas of failure, crisis, or disappointment 0f'1ade image wilnoul being overburdened by a sense C|LUlcy. individuals also must be able to lake pride in areas of achievement, even when those accomplishments Fall short of personal expectations. Al the same lime, older adults lace the work of defining new goals for the future. The discussion that follows provides several models for conceptualizing how older adults establish a satisfying approach to achieving important goals in light of changing resources. The SOC Model Over the life span, people confront the challenges of balancing and matching a variety of opportunities wilh fluctuations in resources (Freund & Baltes, 1998). At every period of life, ihere are limited resources -wheiher time, energy, or money—to address all the opportunities thai present themselves. For example, in later adulthood, a person may wan! lo continue to work (an opportunity) bui find that a chronic heart condition makes il difficult to bring the required energy and resilience lo lhe task (loss of a resource) According to lhe SOC model, adaptation requires the integration of three processes: Selection: Identifying the opportunities or domains of activity that are ol the greatest value or importance. Optimization: Allocating and refining resources in order to achieve higher levels of functioning in lhe selected domains. Compensation: Under conditions of reduced resources, identifying strategies to counteract the loss and minimize the negative impact on functioning in the selected domains. In later life, adults are inevitably laced with changes in resources. They may have more time, but less physical stamina and fewer financial resources. Life satisfaction and a sense of well-being are linked to selecting specific goals as important areas of functioning and then effectively directing both internal (e.g., energy, thought, planning) and external (e.g., hiring help, taking classes, technical assistance) resources in order to maximize their level ol functioning. Demographic factors alone—such as gender, race, age, and income—are not adequate predictors ol life satisfaction. Instead, well-being rests on two related coping strategies: (1) An ability to anticipate potential losses and prevent them through proactive coping in order to prolong the availability of resources and maintain engagement with desired activities (Ouwehand, de Riller, & Bensing, 2006); and (2) an ability to manage or reduce the impact of stressful lilc events by redirecting resources in order to continue engaging in valued roles and activities (llamarai et al., 2001; Salvalore &Sastre, 2001). Life Goals and Life Satisfaction Many older adults have high levels of life satisfaction even though they lace serious stressors ancl physical limitations (Brandisaclier, 2002). In part, ibis is due to their ability to achieve or realize important personal goals, and in part it is due to the ability to modify or adjust their goals in light 530 CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) Life Goal Domains Social relationships and Family Work and daily activities Finances Health/Fitness Leisure Activities Self-reliance Life Goal Orientation Agentic Communal Self-preservation Well-being of others Goal-Related Actions Coping Intentional self-development Cascading facilitation of related goals Matching goals and activities Life Goal Domains Life Goal Orientation Goal-related Actions LIFE SATISFACTION FIGURE 13.1 Life Goals and Life Satisfaction Source: © Cengage Learning. of changing resources. Goals are characterized as linked to daily actions, related to desired slates in the present or the future, and controllable, at least in so Ear as the person can choose to invest resources in certain goals or not (Mayser, Scheibe, &Riediger, 2008). In later adulthood, individuals continue to aspire to new goals and strive to achieve new levels of optimal functioning. A person's life goals and needs may change over the course of later adulthood, depending on life circumstances. Rather than viewing satisfaction in later adulthood in terms ol wrapping things up and facing a roleless, undifferentiated future, older adults continue to formulate personal goals and assess their current life satisfaction in light of how well they are able to achieve those goals. In order to appreciate the link between life goals and life satisfaction, it is important to consider three aspects of life goals: goal domains, goal orientation, and goal-related activities that are aligned with achieving valued goals (Figure 13.1). Goal Domains. What are the achievements that stand out as important areas ol accomplishment in later adulthood? le satisfaction present different ty- yearly adulthood. At that time, individuals are crystal^ gen- rdentity and creating a lifestyle. The conWfJ n ov n U? and H,e experiences shapes an imagined * f; nog mto the futuH, As a person begins the process ol CCptmg °ncs Iife later adulthood, there is a tendency to * Studi pi (logics u™ 1 e PerS„na| goals that were envisioned at that Tile .'n °rder 10 assess the extent to which they *«e realized and perhaps to reevaluate their importance give" * were °r w°re °f life lhal h£»ve transpired since these ^ Goal Orientation. In addition to the speci aspires to, the literature suggests that peop pals°n! le differ; fie gc in in the'1' goal orientation. Some people are more agellt elineiil op le etc ul life goals and I life goals. In one international study that compared older adults in the United States and Holland, lour domains win- relevant to both groups: job or daily activity guah; social contacl and iamily goals; health goals; and income goals, Across the two cultures, attainment of social contact and family goals were the strongest predictor of overall life latisfaction (Kapteyn, Smith, & van Soest, 201.0). i mIht Jmln". imludi' .dl -reliance or autonomy goals and leisure linn: and physical activity goaf, in their analyses of the Link between lil'- goals and lile satisfaction (Straechen, Brawley, Spink, & < ilazebrook, 2010; Wong & Lou, 2010). Individuals show different patterns of investment in these goal domains, and in the specific activities or achievements within domains. To some extent, a persons profile of meaningful goals takes shape in the stages of later adolescence sirivings Thpi,-; nowe,-.,, i I e" lmPonant goals locus on autre m'V exPressi°n of persona! abilities. Other ?f munitv P i ? 10n' and contributions to the moral co Z■ h( "h,mann- 2001>- Other studies have c***£ ffifi £5 10 "I*— se.f-preservation *J mwh, , C Interest in and wclUhang of others. ^ o I!"' baCk :U the Psychosocial crisis of m.ddle ad profit ffnera,tlVlty Vmus sta^"on and consider thajtb - ; ' goals emerging from that period of life h^who resolved the crisis in the direction of « l» 'hose who rM it in the direct Mtlm (UPierre>Bouffard,&BaStin,1997). on & ble Goal-Related Actions As people mf^J^tf -----------------, „ r_- , ait . developmental task of accepting their lite, ities in oi'- integrate their goals and their goal-related actw>^oSt> der to experience a sense ol personal fulfilling11 . ^xect&° in later adulthood who have a strong sense ot se ^ .fllC goal attainment, sentiments of life satisfaction tee p^yid' life goals, strengthening their sense of PurPOS.eLng oi ing renewed energy. Activities that are not satis y j ^ ^0 bring negative social exchanges will be abandoned tf» Developmental Tasks | 531 'cure 132 Ray and Carla have ™re time for each other now that | ey are getting closer to retire- "eit Their happiness 35 a couple ^ important source of life at|sfacrion. or activi °' c°nficj fS are "yoyable and that contribute 10 feelings s°n's g0 ?nce or we"-being. With age, it appears that a per-°ric acc^,.S 3ew)me more supportive of each olher, so that SuPport fUy' '°r examPk, joining a book club, can provide 'n8 tilne °' ':>olh intellectual goals and social goals; spend-«nCef,„ 7th grandchildren can be an opportunity to experi-^oljijjo ' y SuPP°n and physical activity. Couples who enjoy to sPend na>' thal lnis snared interest aIs0 a,lows them steals fp-toS£ther, planning, shopping, and preparing Port p«„L8U1[e 13 2>- Older adults find that their goals sup-■'.......on invest more energy into Port each° * J °'c'e' adu'ts ',ncl tnai ""' Petsonaj U',1er- ancl 1 hat they can mvesl more energy into 'ng r0|e!.80a' Pursuits as their obligations to olher compet-HCs, 2^nd jok demands decline (Riediger, Freund, & ''Vitiej «n ^' "1C mo,c c'ose,>';> person is able to match ac-"oi, (|.| , va,necl goals, the greater the persons life satisfac-fath, ■ liiCn " a<= the case of Orville Brims !VitifS wnh valued goals, the greater the pe fe [}| inl;s ** (Haltsch & Geppert, 2001). As the case g ^r illustrates, many of the baste ^fomentation of > remain the same over time, but ibc.^ health or ^caeUvities may change as a persons physic France declines with advanced age. ADJUSTMENT IN LATER ADULTHOOD °Wic G/Ih °PrnSm on Brim, who contributed to the field of human devel-b^a'mn ouSh his work on social role theory (see chapter 3), ''ttoin^'ncreasinSly Interested in ambition and self-directed goal his father's successful ad- ■ "lunosingiy intercom -■ others SUC"*"""' -«nt ng them- .clentity and creating a lifestyle. The cofflWf * ° °neS Culturc Hie experiences shapes an imagined J* moving ,nio the future. As a person begins the process cepttng ones life in |aler adul[hood th(fre 1S a tm dency ofac 10 re- lief time of to PCrSOnal g°ais that were e °ned at ** ea,"-r z , °rler 10 assess ^ extent to WMch they «* realized and perhaps to reevaluate their importance given t we," lo °'" I?" °( Ufe lhM h*ve transpired since these go* Werefo"ned(CaPPelieZ)20O8). Goal orientation. [naddition t0 the specific go^ ** to. the literature suggests that people differ in * £mentation. Some people arc more'agentic in ^ n we ^f' Thdr important goals focus on achiever^ Power and the expression of personal abilities. Other peoP on im C°mrnal in thdr Bori drivings. Their goals fr£ uZnZy\ f ^ and contributions to the moral co ™ ^ohlmann, 2001). Other studies have that seem to emphasize self.preservation with ml7 iT imerest in and well-being of others. « 1 back at the psychosocial crisis of middle ; generality versus stagnation and confer tb*g goals emerging from that period of life ^ f, ^.hose who resolved the crisis in the direction of gen ' .■"T^ U,lh^who resolved ,. in the direct 8natl0n ^P^Bouffard.&Bastin, 1997). Goa,-Re|ated Actions As ^ pf0gresS pn& life, they in1 developmental task of accepting their ^ vjtics integrate their goals and their goal-related act^ ^ l(loS<-der to experience a sense of personal fulfil"11 ^ serf-direCt^ goal aiiainment, sentiments ol" lile satisfaction e ^\ lile goals, strengthening iheir sense ol puiT^05^' 0r U1^ ine renewed enenw Aetiviries lhal are not sa . [aV bring negative social exchanges will be abandoned tf> Developmental Tasks | 531 'GURE13.2 toy and.Carta have ore time for each other now that are getting closer to retire-ent-Tneir happiness as a couple an important source of life ict|sfaction. °f c°nficN S are cnJ°)'a'jie an(l thai contribute 10 feelings S°n'3 goals'1? 01 wc"~l;,a'nfi- Wiln 'W-il appears lhal a Per" 0neactivi> ome more supportive oieach other, so that SuPpori f y' 'Ur examP'e. joining a book dub, can provide ^8 time rth* inteIlectuai g°als ancl 50cial 6oals; sPend-^efemi, grandchildren can be an opportunity to experi-c°°kinH ' y ^PP01* and physical activity. Couples who enjoy :naY find that Ibis shared interest also allows them tospend""' """ 1 n,eals (p; Unie l0Selher, planning, shopping, and preparing Pori Cacf|g'"'e 1 3-2). Older adults find that their goals sup-P^onai ' and tnal l,1L'y can invest more energy into 'nS ro]esg°al Pursu'ts as their obligations to other compet-Baltes, 20fjvf r°'e demands decline (Riediger, Frcund, & liv'L'es w r'IC more closcly a person is able to match ac-tjotifHai',valued goals , the greater the persons life sausiac-tther m & Geppert, 200 \). As the ease of OrviUc Brim* may reniUS"ale-S' many of the basic motives (or goal pursuits [n the same over time, but the implementation of - - 'v.>r«m's physical heahh or J^fic activiuesniay change as a person France declines with advanced age. CASE STUDY TUnnD ^adjustment in later adulthood y* Albert Brim who contributed ton field o ^ % lD^»t through his work on social role theoo' aedgoal **ame increasingly tntere5ted in ^b^'* successful ad-2mnentin adulthood. He describes ^ (Brim, 1992). apta«ons in later life as an example or th,s process Brim's father, also named Orville, lived to be 103. He was born in a small farming community in a rural area of Ohio in 1883. After receiving his bachelor's degree in education at Valparaiso University, he taught school in a one room schoolhouse for 2 years and then became principal of a high school in Indiana, bvcntually he left the rural Midwest to attend Harvard and then Columbia to get his PhD. He was a professor at Ohio State University until he retired at age 60. Then Orville and his wife, Helen, bought an abandoned farm of severa, hundred acres in Connecticut, remodeled the farmhouse, and settled into farming. In the early years of retirement, he cleared and thinned the trees on the hills and mountains of his farm. After a while, he stopped working the hillsides and planted a large vegetable and flower garden. Orville tilled the garden with a power tiller When he was 90, he bougnt a riding tractor. When he could no longer manage the large garden, he focused on a small border garden and four large window boxes that he planted with flowers. As his eyesight became more impaired, he shifted from reading to listening to "talking books," and when he had to give up actually planting the window boxes, he enjoyed watering them and looking at the flowers. Orville approached each new challenge of physi cal decline by correctly assessing his abilities, investing in a new project, and taking pride in his achievements within that domain. CASE ANALYSIS Using What You Know 1. In this case, B'im's father drew on early life experiences growing up on a farm to guide his goals in later adulthood. Describe how a person might integrate other prior life roles into a satisfying lifestyle in later adulthood. 2. Explain how goal readjustment is related to life satisfaction in this case. Analyse some o£ challenges people might face in later life as they realize the need to revise their life goals. 3. Describe the resources Brim's father had that allowed him to achieve new goals for mastery. 532 i CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75Years A basic element in life satisfaction is the sense of belonging, a fact that has been supported by a wide range of research across Life stages (Baumeister &r l.eary, 1995). In Later Life, social relationships are a primary source oi pleasure and meaning and are an avenue for active engagement. People who experience loneliness or an inadequate social network are much less satisfied with life than those who perceive themselves to be positively connected to a meaningful circle of loved ones and friends (Gow et. al., 2007). In the context of marital relationships, high levels ol conflict are associated with depression and lower Life satisfaction lor both men and women (Whisman et al., 2006). Even though social connection is a source of Life satisfaction in later adulthood, negative relationships and ongoing exposure to interpersonal conflict can disrupt feelings of satisfaction. In a longitudinal study, men who had participated in the Terman Study of Gifted Children when they were in early childhood were interviewed about their life Satisfaction at ages 58 to 72. Four styles ol adaptation emerged: (1) poorly adjusted, (2) career focused but socially disengaged, (3) family focused, and (4) well rounded. Three family experiences from early childhood and adolescence, including parent-child attachment, family socioeconomic status, and early parental divorce, were associated either directly or indirectly with life satisfaction in later life (Crosnoe & Elder, 2004). In addition, contemporary factors including health and socioeconomic resources were generally predictive ol lile satisfaction lor the group as a whole. Goals related to family Life and religious life provided a greater sense ol meaning, social benefits, and emotional support than occupational goals, especially for the family-focused and well-rounded groups (Crosnoe & Elder, 2002b). The family-focused and well-rounded groups had many areas of similarity, as did the career-focused and poorly adjusted groups. There is some suggestion that people who place loo great a priority on occupational attainment during middle adulthood may find it difficult to reorient toward sal-islying lile goals in later adulthood. ^gpgct stable in the sense that people who are high in ^jjyety of personality in comparison to their peers_rein8j_Yitrin wh0 high in that quality over lime. For example, a peK will con- . hers " is outgoing and sociable, in comparison to om . ^ is Unite to rank high in sociability over time. Persona ^ also changing in the sense that certain personality q seem to increase with age, while others decline. Foi ^ereaS studies find that agrceableness increases with age, ^gfiSti openness to new experiences & Mroczek, 201 L). A number of personality characteristics have 0- ^ with life satisfaction in later life, including extrove^^ openness to experiences, lack of neurolicism, LlS£sense of competence, optimism, a sense of humor, and a control. Extroversion includes such qualities as so j^^0 declines (Lodi-Smith,T^ linked been vigor, sensation seeking, and positive e motions. repol are outgoing and enjoy social interaction tend also high levels of lile satisfaction (Costa, Metier, - ^ ^ 1994). In a comparison of two cohorts of older * ^ the assessed in 1976-77 and those assessed in 2003 et[ && more recent group of older adults were more exu^ ^ (J,enera' less constrained by social desirability, su^CSU>'f^Zxso^1 , . .r. . . .........ctine mteiPu ch as tional shift toward a more outgoing, trusting style (Billstedt, Waern, Duberstein et ah, '°:V&;.Wb si licult lives yet appear Iso know people who Personality and Weil-Being VVr all know people who have lived di lu In- lull nl /.(•',I and enthusiasm. We s appear in have had the benefits ol many of life's resources yii air continually complaining about problems. Whether specific events will contribute to Feelings of satisfaction or dismay depends in pan on how they are interpreted. Some people are more likely to be grumblers; others are more likely lo be celebrants ol life. In response to this reality, some resean hers have looked to personality factors to pre diet subjective life satisfaction in later adulthood. The construct ol personality, which is typically viewed as a pattern nl thoughts, feelings, and actions that are characteristic of a person across ;ituations, provides ways of understanding individual differences in coping., goal orientation, and self-evaluative processes. Confusing as it may seem, personality is both stable and changing over ones life. Personality is cunoo"neSS t0 cxI,cri^"ce includes ci s„y, imaginativeness, and enthusiasm about exploring nu,s,c, an, foods, travel, or points of view. C** ' 1 ^ who are open t0 ideas and to feelings are more bk# have a bgh level of |ile satisfaction because they *ek*J SZ ?' TXgC 01 lhe novelly and unpredictability of d*" llves (Stephen, 2009). A Personality dimension described as neurond**'* I? n enZCd ',y anxi«y. hostility, and impulsiveness. v are neurotic experience discouragement, unfaifpfj hopelessness. For them, real-fife events arc screened ^ »tepiacd through a negative filter, resulting in low level*0 ^ >c„on. fa the study Qf Tcrman, samp|e, ygh lev els of neuroticism predicled u,);>(, £ [cal hcall„ and ^ satisfaction (Friedman, Kern, & Reynolds, 2010)- ' . .....re, iS 1£' The personality factor of laied i usefulness/competence qua tv r ,ngand hl«h s^teem in older adul.s. Jb* M 'L> s associated vvtth informal Vo\un^cr work, ^ ZoSeanT1Vemenl wnh others, and a greater sense ' |;^-nd structure in the use of time (iUjn, hood Lv , hCr> l998)' continuing to work in Later «** also contribute to this sen^ifuselulness/co^ eomiZl T th0S£ Wh0 have a high sense of nse^ la|; - choose to work longer. Those older adults w enhance ° °' mentor for ™ or younger workers goals in th Ued «d to .civeve theixo** *** '"^^"onshipCStevens-Roseman, 2009). roflifesatisfactio- J£ Optimism is another predictor timism is a belief that one's decisions wi ill lead to Developmental Tasks 533 "owequencca and that uncertain situations will turn out Wel1- lender conditions ol uncertainty and stress, adults who * Optimistic have less depression, greater hopefulness, ana, * « r«uk, a greater sense, of well-being (Chang & Sanna 2001)- In contrast, those who are pessimistic experience m?re ^cial strain, have lower social support, and as a re-!ull; we likely .o have lower life satisfaction (Luger, Colter, *Sherman, 2009) , . Alo"g with optimism, a sense of humor has been lounc l° Prediet life satisfaction. Given the many changes assoc-y wilh aging> it helps to see events as .amusing rather than Massing or demeaning. Older adults who have a good etl* of humor are likely to experience life in a more playiuL %ged way, even if they view hie as somewhat more absurd ' a'eh, Proyer, & Weber, 2010). . .,, Hr. „ A,sense of control is systematically associated wh li ^faction (McConatha, McConatha, Jackson, & Bergen ^ Life experiences such as engaging in physical acv "Vhe 0PPortunity to select one's leisure kw««j ),ilt>' to decide when to retire are all samples of factors ,hat ^ improve an older adult's sense of control. A stuay ^ Monitored daily activity of older adults over^2 year °^ that people who were able to alternate social , > h n cognitive activities with periods of rest and relax ion £ ^ Skatest sense of happiness (Oerlemans, Bakk ^ ^nhoven, 20 I 1). Taken together these studies suggest h '.............-—med open to new experiences, opt, ,t sense ol n*w" slucues ~\ opli- „11). Taken together ^ expcrience^oP ^ People who are extroverted, «P«* hav£ a SoOCl , .,. Ufe experience a sense of ^«' q{ evcnts ffl *<= humor, and (eel that they are in c: ^ also express high levels ol saus '"less and Health , accept °f°^s. Experiencing a sense of in addition ^ is associated with physical bjj*^ guch as «ease m vulnerability to acute U q{ 6g have at y than 80% of people 0VE7'"/ hypertension ^ cWic condition such as »^n%^|c iU»esSe* ' QlnesS dtsease, diabetes, or ^ce '/f *riods of The Wing and can be characterized y t sive dc ^ c ^owed by periods of ,u the b3 to J * ^ most common chronic condition ar*r>ri= Hem-lne impa>n»e" C°^S*'Vva.ued domain. '1'*l«>,',°y Penous ľ.e althritm°n Chr0nic conditions in the 65 to /t «6. S'l b(0o"jIS' hcai'ing impairments, heart conditions, and Heart j.Pressure fWi"'shaw. 2006) (Figure J 3.3). *°tHen ■1 'Seaíí(* is leading cause of death for men and ^earlji United s'ates. However, it begins about 10 r'sk of J, 161 r "u'n than for women. After menopause, the *re |ess j.j"1 clisease for women increases. Moreover, women 'e'lng d- ' ^ men 10 De accurately diagnosed as suf-n,ore 1,1 "ni a ^art attack, less likely to recover iron) it, and !°rs a y l° SL1"cr l,lc complications of stroke. The lifestyle ,SSOcia'ed with heart disease are 'dhoui the same for .....men are more iikely le ■'■ "iiv the; > Ukely to suffer the comp ca ■ ^ ,n. ^ ^tors associated with heart disej ^Km\^tA> eat m«i and women. However, ffltf ^ ,u.ljvi,y tney a,.e b^ause they do not get the P^ ftber than w d arc !*<*e meat and fat and less fruit an 'likely to go to the doctor foi generally more likely to deny being sick (National Center for Health Statistics, 2013). Longitudinal studies ol men consistently hnd thai current health status and functional autonomy are significant predictors of life satisfaction (Barger, Donoho, & Wayment, 2000). However, the relationship ol health to life satisfaction is mediated by personalhy, resources, and personal goals. A chronic illness, such as arthritis, may result in a significant loss of control and reduced opportunities for physical activity or social interaction. A person who is characterized by a neurotic personality may be more discouraged and embittered by these losses than one who is optimistic or agreeable. A \v:ii.on whose leisure activities have focused on physical activities, such as skiing or running, may find the restrictions of arthritis more frustrating than someone whose hobbies and lifestyle are more sedentary. In a study of more than 3,000 U.S. adults, the personality traits ol conscientiousness and ncuroticisni were found to be associated with mental and physical health Adults who were more conscientious had reduced risks of health problems, whereas those who were more neurotic had increased risk. Among adults with diagnosed physical illnesses, those who were conscientious were less likely less 534 , CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) to be limited by these conditions. One explanation for this association is that the more conscientious a person is, the more likely the person will follow a recommended plan of treatment and to incorporate recognized healthy behaviors into daily life (Goodwin & Friedman, 2006). Another interpretation is thai those who are more neurotic are also more likely to alienate their social support system, thereby losing the important functions ol social support that are associated with health and life satisfaction (Barger, Donoho, & Wayment, 2009). Erikson on Accepting One's Life brikson el al. (1986) highlighted the importance of trust in the acceptance of one's life and the challenge of accepting support as it becomes needed. Maples and aspens every October bear flamboyant witness to this possibility ol a final spurt of growth. Nature unfortunately has not ordained that mortals put on such a line show. As aging continues, in fact, human bodies begin to deteriorate and physical and psychosocial capacities dimmish in a seeming reversal of the course their development takes. When physical frailty demands assistance, one must accept again an appropriate dependence without the loss of trust and hope. The old, ol course, arc not endowed with the endearing survival skills ol the infant. Old bodies are more difficult to care for, and the task itself is less satisfying to the caretaker than that of caring for infants. Such skills as ciders possess have been hard won and are maintained only with determined grace. Only a lifetime of slowly developing trust is adequate to meet this situation, which so naturally elicits despair unci disgust at ones own helplessness. Of how many ciders could one say, "I le surrendered every vestige of his old life with a sort of courteous, half humorous gentleness"? (p. 327) The U-Shaped Curve of Weil-Being The general sense ol subjective well-being can be defined a : a combination ol belie) ■ and feelings that a person has about whether he oi she is leading a desirable, rewarding life (Diener, 2012). Studies across cultures find that certain factors including social support, trust, and a sense of mastery in control predict well-being. What is more surprising is 11 mi many studies hud a I I .Impel relationship of age and well being,, 'sec kigurc I 1.4). The sense ol well-being decreases to a low point in the late 40s and early 'H)s and then increases steadily with advanced age (Blanchflower i'sr Oswald, 2007; Stone, Schwartz, Broderick, & Deaton, 2010). Controlling for income, employment status, and having children, the U-shaped pattern is still observed. Three explanations may account for this trend: ()lder people are less angry, less likely to engage in conflicts, and belter aide to find solutions to conflicts. cd 00 —I nea ,rheSe in' manage changing resources, and plan for the futui■• ^tfi tellectual capacities also influence the adult's abi jy ^ ^ in-involved in productive work, advise and guide _ot ^'yfiffi vent new solutions to the problems of daily life- ^jd, S»n capacity to cope with the challenges of later acu elldsL" thereby preserve a high level of life satisfaction, the ability to promote and sustain intellectual vtg,1 Developmental Tasks 535 How can one understand cognitive functioning and cha"ge in later life? The study of intelligence and cognition ln !^er adulthood is plagued by practical and theoretical Challenges that make it difficult to make broad generahza-tlor>s. In the following seciion, we review lour problems associated with the study ol intelligence and aging. Specific tuP'cs are then discussed including: memory, problem solving in loosely defined situations; and an overview ol age-fated changes in various mental abilities. The tocus then Shifts to an analysis of the impact of heredity and environ-me»t on intelligence and factors that help to sustain h.gn levek of intellectual functioning in latei life. Problems in Defining and studying lntelligence in Later Adulthood lhe Primary goals in the study of development are to dc-sc«be and explain patterns of change and continuity ove. I11111'. Pour problems arise in evaluating the research on iniel-W i„ later iife (stuart-Hamilton, 1996). First, one must Jlfferentiate between age differences and age changes. ^PPose that in a cross-sectional study conducted in 2000, 7(Wolds performed less well on tests of flexible problem Solv'ng than 40-year-olds. The difference may be clear Hllim, „.... i ..■ ■ TX-. 7fl-voflr-nlds WOUlO it may n l 4°-ycar-c)ids. The difference may uc l We b "0t, 3 resul' of a8e alone' The 70-yenrolds would l'°ual o 'n Per'ornlanec may be a product of different educates Qr':'POIIUni|]es, varying experiences with standardized nities j' er corlort-related factors. Educational opportu->'oun 1C1CilS(,c' markedly during the 20th century so that ''"trial ' rts are much more likely to have benefited from (U.s g 0,ing :>l both the high school and college levels 0fPeo j|UCaU °' the Census> 2000). For example, only 10% tlegrep'J 6 a&es 61 to 74 in 2000 had completed a bachelors levei of W as 'B% ofaduIts ages 35 to 44 had attained this aieci f education. In the older cohort, 26% had noi gradu-CohQj.j"'71 n'gi' school, compared to 1 1% in lhe younger 'leetjVe V;,nceel education is associated with greater rc-have atf CSS' Uex'bilny, and rclalivislic thinking. People who Pr°cess ei1t'CC' c°Hege have been exposed lo the scientific irtore [m af 3 vva>' of gaining knowledge and, as a result, are is ier)|> . y iu consider that their understanding ol the world (King ^!'VC lx'nc'>ng new information or new technologies Kitchener, 1994; Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 2000). fimrtinninE, histori- cro"s''Cnen('r' ly^;Lttoou -'To-- "Sect'ona' studies of cognitive functioning, histori-ctOrs i] ITlny ^c unfounded with developmental or aging ^aric 3 ni;'/V contr'DUte to observed differences in per-'iiiie. jf C" 'ongitudinal studies that follow change over '"^ther ch f °nC conor( [s s:imP^'<-f "'s impossible to tell age ar](j flanges from one period to the next are products of a1d cnajj eve'°Prnent or a result of fluctuations in resources A Se , ®es 'accc' by thai particular generation. 'U|icij0 °ntl Pr°hlem is the definition of abilities. Cognitive 'eda|3jj. .nS is a broad term lhal encompasses such var-'llenioi-v "?S->lS Voci,°ulary, problem solving, and short-term '' 1 ,s possible that the pattern of change in abilities with age depends on which abilities are tested. Some abilities arc Frequently used ancl have been developed to a high level of efficiency For example, an architect is more likely to retain abilities in spatial relations and reasoning than is someone whose work is not intimately connected with the construction and organization of spatial dimensions. A third related problem is the relevance of the tasks used to measure adult cognitive functioning. The definition of intelligence that is used in the design and application of most intelligence tests refers to capacities that are predictive of school-related success. The criteria for assessing adull intelligence are necessarily more varied than the ability to succeed in a school curriculum. Furthermore, motivational factors come into play in the measurement of intelligence. This raises the distinction between ability and performance. If a test is perceived as irrelevant or unimportant, an adult may not give much ellon to performing well. Finally, factors associated with, health are intertwined with the functioning ol older adults, although they are often not directly measured. A number of age-related diseases impact an individuals ability to learn and retain new information. However, the boundaries between what might be considered normal cognitive changes associated with age and disease-related changes are not easy to detect, especially in the early stages of an illness (Albert, 2002). In a longitudinal study of intelligence, Riegel and Riegel (1972) found clear declines in performance among participants who died before the next testing period. Vocabulary skills, which normally remain high or continue to show increases with age, are especially likely to decline in older individuals who will die within the coming lew years. Adults who are in the early stages of dementia but have not yet been diagnosed as suffering from lhe disease arc often included in samples described as nor ma! or normative. This inclusion lowers the mean of the total group and overestimates lhe negative association of age and intelligence (Sliwinski, Holer, Hall, Buschke, ), Studies acr< is , cultures find that certain factor, including social support, trust, and a sense of mastery hi control predict well being. What is more surprising i.-. thai many studies find a U-shaped relationship of age and well being, 'see Figure I IT). The sense ol well-being decreases i<> a low point in the hue 40s and early 50s and ,|M i I,, a-a-.es steadily with advanced age (Blanchflower ; # «^VVV #V a* a # Age so««?swne3A4ATJ!f U"ShaPed Curve of Weil-Being of WW* Z|,J- E' Brade«, J. E„ & Pooo,,. A. 12010), A m** ***** Science, R«SJSS 20 71 ** 3,ales' °""C Z 7tfOI Jm<- 18, 2013, from h(t„://www (iras.org/cg/doi/10.1D73/pias.10037-' * Older people are more likely to locus on what matters Z f?ent and not worry as much about what the future holds. OWer people may give up certain kinds of strivings and ac«pt the life they have. or her T F*fCT'ON: hoW a person might modify W tion rf laUr adukh°°J « order to optimize life salf', ofsom m £Tpkfrm ^ 0™ experience or from the & Promoting Intellectual Vigor facto°!fhCT,VE2' Define intellectual vigor, and describe h nl Pr°m0te !t in later "fa evaluate evidence aW* "Hater 2 °'and e™ronment on intelligence Over the life span, adaptation and survival depei^t P''°b'. sons ability to meet the demands of their environ' ^ ^Qi0 lent solving, which begins in infancy at the -scns0l^j adaPte levels, becomes increasingly Flexible, abstract, ^gfiOtf' to the context and situation, over the life coU^gabilitieS] reasoning, information processing, problem-so intellcL and mental rigidity or fluidity all influence an adU.ng£U1 go*' tual vigor, the capacity to introspect, select11iean'. Ttnese These rem in- ain manage cl • y nUmsPeet, select meau»-lellccn, I angIn§ rcs0Llrces, and plan for the future, involved CaPaCi,tieS 3lso influen^ the adults ability U elt new " P?*** WOrk' and guide others, -n Ws«'u..ons,o the probleins of daily life- tbtVf [U[y tO COpe With the Challenge, of laler adulthood; an id canncm ,"UUUbC0 the problems of daily lite. JI1C^ , theih? C°Pe Wi,h the chall^ges of later adulthood-J^'v preserve a high level of life satisfaction, dep** Utyt0 Promote and sustain intellectual vigor- Developmental Tasks j 535 How can change in 'l- understand cognitive functioning and in later i T' The Stucly of illlelliSenct'and cognition challen 'thood is plagued by practical and theoretical lions. Inth f ' make " cli(flcuh 10 make broad generaliza-s°c'ated *i owinS action, we review four problems as-^Picsare h 1 SUlC'y °' lnteIIiSence and sSinS- Specific lng in I i611 lscussed including: memory, problem solv-^lated h de,ined situations; and an overview of age-shjfij nanSes in various menial abilities, 'the focus then ment o -11 3na'ys's 01 tne impaci of heredity and environ-'eVels 0r ■ 'nte"'gence and factors (hat help to susiain high '"tellectual functioning in later life. ^SSaSH8 Def,"n'nS a"d Studying The ce in Later Adulthood scribg • Ty 8°a'"s '" l,,c study of development are to de-time P exP'ain patterns of change and continuity over 'fence •Ur,'3ro^'ems arise i" evaluating the research on intel-dif[ere 1,1 la|erlife (Stuart-Hamilton, 1996). First, one musi Sllppos 'j,'6 '5etWeen aSe differences and age changes. 7°\VearC ! d cross"sectiona' studv conducted in 2000, so]VJtl ~° s Performed less well on tests of flexible problem it may8,, " 40-year-olds. The difference may be clear, but have hp 01 3 resu'' 0'aSe alone. The 70-year-okLs would ference^en born 1930, and the 40-year-olds in i960. Dif-tionaj 'n Per'onnance may be a producl of different educa-tests PP0,1 unities, varying experiences with standardized iiiiiej ' ot'ler cohort-related factors. Educational opportu-yonn„',nci'cascci markedly during the 20th century so that (brnjgi 1 Coh°n.s are much more likely to have benefited from (U.S B olinSai both the high school and college levels Ofpeo '|!reuu "iihe Census, 2000). For example, only 10% uVgre. P c a8es 65 to 74 in 2000 had completed a bachelors level of eas l8% of adults ages 35 to 44 had attained this ated f ec,L'cation. In the older cohort, 20% had noi graduation0? lligh sc,1Ho1' compared to 11% in the younger lectiyp anced education is associated with greater re-have e'leSS' f'rxihili|y. and relativistic thinking. People who Prices tendecI college have been exposed to the scientific "lore 111 JS 3 Way "'gaining knowledge and, as a result, are is lent' CC''/ U> consider that their understanding of the world (King r"Ve Priding new information or new technologies ^ « Kitchener, 1994; Labouvie-Vief&Dlehl, 2000). ca] fac ross-sectional studies of cognitive functioning, histori-(aet0rsT may be confounded with developmental or aging forrria at niay contribute to observed differences in per-tirne if°e' In iongitudinal studies thai follow change over Hei'h', °n!y °ne colicrl is sampled, it is impossible to tell a8e *r changes from one period to the next are products of andc, deve'oprneni or a resull of fluctuations in resources A a"enges faced by that particular generation. functiecond Problem is the definition of abilities. Cognitive ied abrn'ng ''s a broad lerm thal encompasses such var-ftw es as vocabulary, problem solving, and short-term 'y: ,l is possible thai the pattern of change in abilities with age depends on which abilities are tested. Some abilities are frequently used and have been developed to a high level of efficiency. For example, an architect is more likely to retain abilities in spatial relations and reasoning than is someone whose work is not intimately connected with the construction and organization of spatial dimensions. A third related problem is the nirvana- of the tasks used to measure adult cognitive functioning. The definition of intelligence that is tiseel in the design and application of most intelligence tests refers to capacities that are predictive of school-related success. The criteria lor assessing adult intelligence are necessarily more varied than the ability to succeed in a school curriculum. Furthermore, motivational factors come into play in the measurement of intelligence. This raises the distinction between ability and performance. If a test is perceived as irrelevant or unimportant, an aduli may not give much effort to performing well. Finally, factors associated with health are intertwined with the functioning ol older adults, although they arc often not directly measured. A number ol age-related diseases impact an individual's ability to learn and retain new information. However, the boundaries between what might be considered normal cognitive changes associated with age and disease-related changes are not easy to detect, especially in the early stages of an illness (Albert, 2002). In a longitudinal study of intelligence, Rtegel and Riegel (1972) found clear declines in performance among participants who died before the next testing period. Vocabulary skills, which normally remain high or continue to show increases with age, are especially likely to decline in older individuals who will die within the coming lew years. Adults who are in the early stages of dementia but have not yet been diagnosed as suffering from the disease arc often included in samples described as normal or normative This inclusion lowers the mean of the total group and overestimates the negative association of age and intelligence (Sliwinski, I Infer, flail, Buschke, ' 'n luler adulthood in order to resolve . 1 a of mtegrity V(„us d M js used l0 recall ^evaluate certain life evens that may preoccupy mm 7? ll'C r°lc 0f lhese events can be integrated in W* fere 2 ^"^ °f 0ne's Purpose. This process may *** 27uh an adult's ability to attend to current minutiae or to lrae ^d recall new information. i.;ik Mea There is wide variability in people's memoiy typeS o rrement of changes in memory across dw^a ol sks siumests mnro ctaHtliH; than change °ve' 0r£& surement of changes in memory across tasks suggests more stability than change o ^ adulthood (Zelinski eV Lewis, 2003). Some P^P^. 0*' attention to details and are more able to reca fag&'k ers ignore many details and are not able l0.retl^'enlbefin^ salesman or politician may have a knack loi 101 ^pm|,ers- die names of (fiends, acquaintances, and '"'^'[^"^ts a'ld A historian may have a memory for hisionca: ^^to personalities. A police detective may pay ilic the details of the physical environment from b^ peop|e As the demands ofwor k and family life accumuia^-^, attend specií is me demands ol work and lamuy me «v.~- eVetits iclapi by focusing attention on the details an^ ^txttf^ are most salient for their success. Over time, in people's approaches to what they have learne , f0, , the ce A and found useful in coping with Life shape -whether and how new information is encoded an^ ^0vj In addition to actual declines in some kinds bieiH5-performance, older adults complain of 11icm°'y^auy. ^ Anxiety and frustration ewer memory loss nagn0i those older adults whose memory performance^ ^ relleC the matically declined. However, memory comPlaint(^wing1 n. the persons accurate subjective assessment ol a 5 _ (price retrieval process, or a decline in their episo die me acy ^lf-ef^ Hertzog, & Dunlosky, 2010). A loss of memoiy ^ ^ro Pi er traveling on a business trip. This type ol memory task can become a hindrance to effective perform ^ ory tasks. Low self-efficacy regarding one's memo lead Developmental Tasks | 537 t0 an avoidance of tasks that require episodic memory, such as Playing certain types of games or attending social events Nvhere one is expected to recall the names of new associates. . In hopes of understanding the degree of resilience or plas-tlcily available in the memory capacity of older adults, varies training studies have been performed. Training strategies "ave been shown to improve the episodic memory oi older j^lts. However, when younger and older adults are given the same training, the younger adults benefit significantly ^ and show greater improvement in their memory skills than the older adults. This suggests thai there may be some "Pper limit to the plasticity of memory in later life (Singer, UlUlenberger, & Bakes, 2003). Solving Loosely Defined problems search based on the standard Piagetian tasks has been critlcued lor its lack of relevance and Familiarity to older parents. The traditional tasks are dominated by the role ot PUre iogic, disconnected from the situation. They emphasize Problems that have a scientific rather than a pragmatic lo-,CUs- Although the solution to most formal operational prob-eins requires the manipulation of multiple variables, there is ;>'Pieally only one correct solution. In adult life, most piob-;™s involve multiple dimensions with changing or poorly *e&*d variables and more than one solution, bor example, f etl my limited resources, should I buy more life insurance Püt ca*h in a certificate of deposit, or invest in the stock and Dond market to best protect my family's financial future. „ As a result of these limitations or criticisms ol Forma "pei'a"onal reasoning, scholars have formulated a view I P;str"rmal thought which has been characterized in the J^ng ways (Commons & Richards, 2003; Labouv.c-V id, < Sinnott & Cavanaugh, L991). * A heater reliance on reflection on self, emotions, values. . aAnd the specific situation in addressing a problem A Willingness to shift gears or take a different approach , ^Pending on the specific problem An ability to draw on personal knowledge to find prag-, 'nat'c solutions ... A" awareness of the contradictions in life and a will-^«nessto try to include conflicting or contradictory . Joughts, emotions, and experiences in finding a solution A flexible integration of cognition and emotion so uia SolWions are adaptive, reality oriented, and emotionall) An enthusiasm for seeking new questions, find,"S Ue* Problems, and new frameworks for understanding exPerience ^rent types of problems «ntea^««^ - Problem has clear parameters and need a angteso J*, concrete or forma, operations may 0> a problem is loosely defined, value laden, amb guou solves many interpersonal implications, . n on. ta lppl'"ach may bye uiretl. Given the complexity ol adu life, adaptive problem solving requires flexibility, differentiation of positive and negative aspects of a single alternative, and the ability to consider the implications ol a course of action. When older adults lace a loosely defined problem, they tend to consider multiple aspects of the situation Their solution is altered depending on the larger overall goal they are striving to achieve (Berg dci >'k, 2092). However, Horn argued that these two Hulls ol thinking draw on somewhat different neurological and experiential sources. Gi relleets the consequences of life experiences within a society. Socialization in the family; exposure to the media; and participation in school, work, and community settings all emphasize the use and improvement ol Gi. G( increases with age, experience, and physical maturation, and remains at a high level of functioning throughout adulthood. Gf is characteristic of what is meant by someone having common sense. Finding a general relationship and applying ii without having been schooled in that problem-solving area 5 3n .eXamPle of Gj\ as is being able to approach new problems logically, systematically, and quickly Horn hypothesized fiat G/depends more on the specific number ol neurons available for its functioning than does Gc. Thus, neurology loss would be more damaging to 6/than to Gc. Subsequent research has supported the notion that neural efficiency, often recognized through change s in sensory functioning 31 ■Teed ol response, is closely related to fluid intelligence and shows an age-related decline, independent of disease Pf* mplicanon is that in areas where there is highly develop expertise aging is not necessarily accompanied by decline !n either Gj or Gc. In an analysis of the pattern of cognitive abilities ion U SPan" Tucker-Drob (2009) gathered data from a onally representative sample of over 6,000 individuals 6c0 and In l° '' HC l°0ked « ^ groupings, comparing W °W SCOring individuals at different ages, to address tj Z7(^T°nS: (l) How do various abilities change w> good „ a,b"Uics Cluster tog«her Pe0Ple ^ 1 fZi : 1SUal"sPatial thinking are also good at short** -..kiiiiies wit" ag memory), or is there differentiation among aDunw" ^ ^ (people can be very good in one area, and average ^ so strong in another)? Seven broad areas of cogWU* ^ 'ere measured: conmn-fpi-K,,,,! tnnwledee (simiW1 ..v..vi/! -.even mu*u a"-"- — r jjgr 10 ""g were measured: comprehension knowledge LSI .^tjfyine fluid reasoning {Gf), visual-spalial thinking (e'g"ssing spe£C the pieces needed to complete a pattern), ProL ^ & r0w° (e.g., quickly identifying two identical numbers ^ ^ u,i-numbers), short-term memory (e.g., rePeatmgirlg as i11^' related words), long-term retrieval (e.g.. na^laces°x0 \ examples as possible from a specific category o P ^ ^ feels), and auditory processing (e.g., identifying ^^0»» it is presented against a competing background °b.]i[jeS ^ sounds). As illustrated in Figure 13.6, all the a ^rice. the exception ol Gc increased in childhood and ^ ^ u1e peaked in later adolescence and early adulth°°J;t, & L declined through adulthood and aging. In con '( g(jul* lized intelligence continued to increase thr0Y|lightly iriL hood, until about age 60, and then declined h ^ fo& later life. Among those of higher general inieU^.joU5 cof^ was less commonality in the scores across the V g c0fli Wve abilities suggesting that with greater intelUg ^ a greater capacity to express certain abilities ^ a high level. Over the life span, the abilities ** jfctrfjj ferentiated; that is, people in middle adulthood » ^C showed more variability in their cognitive capac younger children and adolescents. Developmental Tasks J 539 560 y- 540 520 "53 á 500- 430 - 460 - 440 0 90 100 Age (in years) rucb, Í Cna"ges in Cognitive Abilities over the Life Span 931* Gc „ • f'u',Ki 5' Paf ihe envi- °flse Ci'y 'aCU>rs as-socla,(>cl wun i nges jn SLlc'1 as Parkinsons or Alzheimersconliibutc to c°gnitive fun, ■--------age (Wilcox, Wilcox, e°nirie)lt a'so supports the increasing role of (he en i*p0SLire tQn Cofn'tive functioning in late life. Long-term (SU'a,'on c env'ronmemai toxins, poor nutrition, or social OrSrn.impair oP'inral cognitive abilities. The sdrnu-t &Ss to So .' inS nature of the environment—including ac-° ^ease ^ :"nn'"'1 fhe Quality of health care, exposure ■,i..,.mem in stifling nature of die enviroi i - exp0sure >c-ial support, the quality ol hea • jn and opportunities for continuing mvol challenging work- transforms the genotype into an observed phenotype (Baird & Bergeman, 2011; Gottesrnan, 1997; Shanahan & Holer, 2005).' The noted learning theorist D. F: Skinner (1983) described some possible environmental qualities thai fail to reinforce systematic thinking or new ideas in aging people. Many people who live alone, for example, lack the diversity of social interaction that produces cognitive discrepancy and new concepts. Older people may be reinforced for talking about the past. Their recollections ol early memories are interesting to students and younger colleagues. However, preoccupation with these reminiscences does not encourage thinking in new directions. Skinner claimed that one is more likely to repeal oneself as one ages. He suggested that it may be important for older adults to move into new areas of work in order to prevent the repetition ol old ideas. Skinner believed thai it is possible to analyze how the quality of ones thinking is influenced by the circumstances of aging and also to identify interventions that will prevent the deterioration of cognitive abilities. These interventions include attempts to be sensitive to the signs of fatigue, planning for regular opportunities for stimulating verbal interactions with others, making careful outlines of written work to avoid distraction, and acting on ideas as they come to ones mind rather than counting on remembering them later. Cognitive functioning in later adulthood is multidimensional, with substantial differences among individuals as well as differences among cognitive domains within the same person (McArdle el al., 2002). Adults experience tremendous growth in domain-specific areas ol knowledge. Within these domains, many complex networks of information, strategies, and frameworks ol meaning are elaborated thai resull in high-level, flexible functioning. The overall level ol functioning is subject to environmental influences that promote particular specialization and cognitive organization based on the demands of the situation, the stresses and challenges of daily life, and the opportunities for mastery in particular areas of competence. At the same time, certain aspects ol the pro cessing base that are dependent on neural functioning may decline with age. This decline, however, is not always great, and studies have shown that capacities described as elements of fluid intelligence, such as speed of response, inductive reasoning, and spatial oriental ion, can benefit from targeted interventions (Saczynski, Willis, & Schaie, 2002; Yu, Ryan. Schaic, Willis, &C Kolanowski, 2009). On the basis ol extensive longitudinal research, the following factors have been identified as effective for retaining a high level of cognitive functioning in later adulthood: 1. Absence of cardiovascular and other chronic diseases 2. Favorable environment linked to high socioeconomic status 3. Involvement in a complex and intellectually stimulating environment 540 | CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) 4. A strong sense of control over ones work 5. Flexible personality style at midlife 6. I ligh cognitive functioning of spouse 7. Maintenance of a high level of perceptual processing speed 8. Rating oneself as being satisfied with lile accomplishments in midlife This list illustrates the interplay of the biological, psychological, and social systems that contribute to cognitive functioning in the later years (Schaie, 1994; Schaic objective 3. Explain the process of redirecting energy to new roles and activities, with special focus on role gain, such as grandparenthood; role loss, such as widowhood; and new opportunities for leisure. Role transition, role gain, and role loss occur in every period of the lile span. In later adulthood, however, a convergence of role transitions is likely to lead to a revision of major life functions and a reformulation ol ones lilestyle. Roles are lost through widowhood, retirement, and the death of friends. At the same tune, new roles, such as grandparent, senior adviser, or community loader, require the formation ol new patterns ol behavior and relationships. Grandparenthood ' irandparenthood is a new role that provide: lor psychosocial growth, both For individuals pareni couples (Taubman-Ben-Ari, Findlei 201 '<). Becoming a grandmother or gran tell-asure chair. Grandparents begin to rekindle their acquaintance the delights ol childhood, including diapering the ba^y, ing fairy tales, taking trips to the zoo, or having the p ^ of small helping hands with baking, gardening, or car] A person's parenting skills, patience, and knowledge^ into play in a new configuration and may be more in in the grandparent role than they were in the paren Grandparentlng styles. Grandparenthood m^ be„ a three-generational family system. The averag resUltiog commg a grandparent is in the decade of the „ children [Giarrusso, Silver-stein, & Bengston, 1996)-* enactrnen, of the grandparent role depends on the timing "2 'n,° lh'S r0,e and the outlook or interest olef The , I'" ' 1aV'nfi '"fractions and access to one another. quality ol the grandparent-grandchild relationship * ^ g toted through the adult child and is likely to change as i 52? matUre (Smith & DreW- 2002^ ACr0SS " ches, certain common factors appear to predict ItMf The P T UWCen Srandch"dren and their grandpa.^ ^ e nclude frequent contact, grandparents' educ-wj ^v, younger age of the grandparent/and general heal ^ ™ , , fandtn°therS tend to be more involved » *jj S t n'S liVCS lhan other grandparents (Danielf <** * lanskanen, 2012; Hakoyama & MaloneBeach, 2013). people differ m the way they enact the grandparent^' ^ one of the first empirical studies of N Wen and VVetnstein (J 964) interviewed the grand J in 70 middle-class families. The following e*/** P^entmg styles were identified, each expressing a d**>* interpretationoftherole: L F°rmf\Th« type of grandparent was interested in ^ grandchildren but careful not to become mvolved * parenting them other than by occasional babysit""^ f""SCeker- T^ type of grandparent had informal, P II lntf5actions with the grandchildren, enjoying self-indulgent fun with them surrogate parent. This style was especially likely for grandmothers who assumed major child care ltle* when the mother worked outside the home. oppo md for grand-Ben Shlomo, ler brings a lation as well as a change in the lam-th ol a first grandchild, an adult may :'s own life phases ol childhood, par-grandparenthood, revisiting earlier personal and interpersonal themes, and possibly revising earlier understandings of the parent -child relationship. Depending on one's level of engagement in the grandparent role, grandparenthood may require a renewal of parenting skills thai have been stored away along with the bottle sterilizer and potty psychological t ransfon ily system. With the hi begin to reflect on on Reservoir of family wisdom. This style was ally the ian relationship in which a grandparent, parerits grandfather, dispensed skills and KSOUft^ ^ well as grandchildren were subordinate t as auth only figure. Distant figure. This type of grandparent apP birthdays and holidays but generally hac 1 with the grandchildren. entlioiKi vred More than 35 years later, Bengston (2001)°^^^ vised picture of the nature of multigenerationa^^ 0f Qt^ lis research was based on the Longitudim nuingvVl1') {\rfi] th' erations (LSOG), begun in 1971, and contir- ^-^re collection every 3 years. This study is based o Developmental Tasks j 541 2.000 members of three-generational families, enabling the cessment of relationship characteristics between parents a,ld their adult children, adult children and their children, and grandparents and grandchildren. The study highlights that the Way a person enacts the grandparent role is not only a Product of a personal definition of the role, but also a result ol how the interconnected family members permit and sup-Port tntergenerational interactions. . The L50G identified live aspects of Intergenerational solidaxity-a construct that reflects closeness and comm. me»t witlun the parent-child and grandpareni-grandcinici ^'ationships. These dimensions are as follows: Affectional solidarity: Peelings of affection and e etoseness Assoc' 3. r0l'^'Uti<"u'1 solidarity: Type and frequency of contact tatio SUa solidarity: Agreement in opinions and expec- aT]M°mi sorrily- Giving and receiving emotional 5. St'', instrumental support ctural solidarity: Geographic proximity that would ' low for interaction tlotta] r °n l'lese measured dimensions, five intergenera-the graa'?''^ typcs wcre 'dcnidied, which closely resemble ^einst j ,Jarenlin8 ro,es characterized by Mettgartcn and lived n - 'n "1£ tight-knit families were emotionally close, reCejVe{.ja^ °nc an°ther, interacted often, and both gave and and hgj r ^' ^e sociable families were emotionally close help '('. 'CC,Uent contact but did not offer much functional agi'een > e intimate hl" distant families had high levels of nt and felt emotionally close but did not interact Ved far apart, and offered little functional help. The cuntac'i? 'a"lilles 'iwd near one another and had frequent "lUch • 3t" WCIC 1101 emotionally close and did not share Dally tj", l'1C Way °f common opinions or expectations. Fi-So'idari 6 C'''"c'"'c' families had low levels (if all measures of saiiip|c"lK !" 'he adult children's views of their parents, the ^gut-It W'1S c'lvided rather evenly across the five groups. Sample" a,Ul Sociable families were each about 25% of the eaeh _i' "kh'gatory and intimate but distant families were VVher| >0ut 16%, and detached families were about 17%. Carte, et"niC gi-..— ronmarcd, more often ob\i{ Were °ttt 16% groups were compared, European Ameri-r'eari^ "K"C '''hysjs ry or detached. Cultural dimensions including the Sl;"us anc;0n ' orjligation, immigration or acculturation try all inf) ['le sy'"'M)lic meaning of IH-ws to one's ances-(he gra 1 Uence the emphasis that var Two j Cnl rnl''(H no, only ,*d,-'*ing. This kind of important assessmen, 0f " ,e cl>H but also to the older adults Z^child relation! °rth- 0ver the grandparent-^singlymeaninafi iP 33 the P^nil (or becoming °°d '"^ relation f 33 grandchiWren mature intoaduh-pc,s°nal choice Co T ty?lcally stained through mutual ;'"d a unique form Zu ^ Kspect' mutual supp("''' ,L,-»snoe cvr Elder 2nm d aS Wc!' as diverging history Soi"e aduhs im- ' Kcmp> 2005> P°,nun,,y to pass ',Pre! the role ok grandparent as an op-plural heritage ofth their godchildren the wisdom and t,leirg'-andc(,i;dJen ancestry. Through interactions with pTovidmg irisights '^parents can transmit cultural values, *'^rations and w }' hope wi" ff^e and protect ten* 'lat they treasure fT™? SOTneth™g of the cultural heritage Fu,,er-"nrompSon I ,,eirown P«a (Thompson, Cameron, the Process 0f U 10 J; ^rmrt & Charpentier, 2013). & f ,aning in their Cv,"8 S r°le' t),c'er adults must try to Ways to their g,-a ,f1CCS and communicate it in m»n&# ""ft0 educate IT khen- Godparents select many 'antasies S( Cv' f ^children, influencing their though* '"'^'"us services IZ & Special triPS> long walks, alt^& U,£S tha' allow »n } W°rl ^ supp0rt the ^ (Hunle, , 997). These grandmothers may Jhiklven. They may also provide direct and« ^ chll. enrol o ^ ' ent.rm, middle adulthood, when f« Aen- grandchildren, including being home w ^ b young lun • J ^ The prcscnce „, d. d«n return from school, taking care: of the J» hoUse. they^^ tnc gr ^ ^ ^ ^ ag ,„ a£ r "1 and the parents have to work, andMai fc hcr. motherapp environmcn, Having a grand hold tasks ■- *.........-"««nd children can have the charing ^ ^ ^ ^ ,|cxi|)le J* f parents have to e together ^^PP- th^ ^ ^ P^^ ^ ^ task so that parents and children can na nts the her u, hc mOR, llcxll)|e in manag- h the other two thirds of this group the £ ls the thereby reducing much of the stress that a* lhe householders, suggesting that ma 7 g chlldrCT mg da ly ^ " , rcm families. 3re t«ing their resources to help suppor Ju lhcir characerne srngt p t.oluljliw, «* grandchildren. About . .5 *^ld. T1,sc ehil- Ukely to give direct support, h ■ ' i........,11 nn grandparents lsjng their resources to help support enc, -..... 1 grandchildren. About 1.5 million children live with tn r^Parents with no parents in the household. These cr are more Ukdy t0 be living in Pover,y, without health ^ance, and receiving some type of public assistance ch children who live in their grandparents household With 'heir, . /rJ.Mc 2003). Among grandpar- ent -nmnled 40% 4°% tare If CUs!od7 of lheir grandchildren, «. ^°10) (nC mcir grandchildren for 5 years or more (Abel, ''lc adult ?^le' VV(,R's\ dvs is a hmg-lcim Ci Ccklran, & Triado. 2012). In con-a«a p0('l'y.^niencan society, one can view grandparents ee,'[uin pre a' resource that is called into active duly when v°ree „ ' icu'ties arise ten parents. In eases of parental cli-0^you'n. an Parents ohen assume a eeniral role in the lives ^ill) tli°c™Idren. Some custodial mothers move back home C;if(-rCs " Pa,enls- Grandparents ohen assume more child Grand ibil'ties duvmZ*r, JPressinR tu g,andP*>-cm caregivers perceive -cWf'ndch^ren Th1" gene™ive moüves in caring10 ^«dcS°naJ bond 2 ?' fa a mi1™ P°sition 10 [0Z *«d p,,' "d*n to ^grandchildren, hdpM*« Gt*e] ZTah * Keii €om^nny ties (Bullock, ' °°5- Hinki* iY' 200fi; ^dry-Meyer, GO** FuUeT-Thomson, 20051 Developmental Tasks J 545 i ■ MM| closeness across generations. These figure 13.9 Chinese American families continue ©teem gs [hey enjoy a far™Y members obviously have a strong sense of affection taxing day in the park. takes on the leadership role for ,he family (Sakamoto, Kim, & Takei, 2012). Puerto Rican and many other Latino cultures embrace the Va|ue of familialism, a sense of c|°seness and interdependence among members of the nuclear and extended family, which deludes a deep respect for B|ders. Family members serve many functions, including socialization, protection, °°mpanionship, social and business contacts, and economic support. Puerto Rican families create a formal intergenerational link through the role of the compadrazgo, or godparent, who has a responsibility for the child's well-being through life (Negroni, 2012) Critical Thinking Questions 1. If you have a living grandparent, describe your relationship. Summarize the impact that your grandparents had on your development at different stages. How has your ethnic or religious group shaped the way you view your aging family members and the quality of your relationship with them? 2. Summarize the idea of different styles of grandparenting. How do you think your grandparents conceptualize their role?Talk to them and ask if they have a sense of the kind of grandparent they are and how they would like to be. How does their sense of themselves compare with how you think of them in their grandparent role? What are the implications of the similarities and differences in these conceptualizations? 3. For each American ethnic group discussed above, consider some likely tensions between the grandparent and the grandchild generation. Speculate about problems that might arise in each family if the adult children and the grandchildren identify with American individualistic values and grandparents identify with more collectivist values. 4. Imagine yourself as a grandparent. How would you conceptualize your role as a parent of adult children? As a grandparent? Based on the information presented in the chapter, what kind of grandparent would you like lo be? Why? How do you think having a grandchild would influence your psychosocial development? Bill and v e"ces of . naron Micks were interviewed about die cxperi-mising [heir granddaughter, Brittany: ter '1(H n easy Sometimes we feel a hide bit-atyav»Cause our anticipated freedom has been taken 'heir h W'1Cn asketl '"lc an(l his wile W°uM 0pen y0sl g me l(> Brittany again, he answered: "Positively, "u,"y has been a shining light in our lives. She has forced us to slay young ai heart. And that's not such a bad thing to happen." (Abel, 2010) Loss of Grandparent-Grandchild Contact, in con trast to the picture ol an increasing role for grandparents in caring for their grandchildren, a growing number of grandparents are losing contact with their grandchildren as a result of parental divorce, conflici between the parents, death 546 | CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) of an adult child, or adoption of a grandchild after remarriage. Disruption in the grandparent-grandchild relationship is especially great when the grandparent's adult child is not named as the custodial parent after a divorce. In the 1980s, most stales created statutes allowing grandparents to file for a legal righl lo enforced visitation with their grandchildren, even over parental objections. The laws differ from slate Lo slate, establishing different conditions under which grandparents may he granted visitation. In 1998, a law was passed to ensure that grandparents who have visitation rights in one state may visit their grandchildren in any state. However, in some slates, earlier visitation laws have been overturned, finding thai (hey interfere with parental rights regarding the rearing of their children. Legal recourse is not very effective given that it tends lo increase the hostilities between grandparents and their adult children, making normalized visitation even less likely (Drew & Smith, I999; Drew csT Smith, 2002). For more information about grand-patent visitation rights, visit the website of the Foundation lor Grandparenting (www.grandparenting.org/) (Kornhaber. 2004). their husband is most keenly felt as a loss of emotional sup-Port, as expressed in the following example: "He is most apt "e ™niionecl as the person the widow most enjoyed be-with, who made her feci important and secure" (W»> , °'P- 221). The transition to widowhood may be espe-Oally dlfficult for those who have been caring for an ill P*' ner hoping for recovery yet observing constant decline (Bass ^ Bowman, 1990). Widowhood Among those ages 65 to 74 rvv r describe their marital status aZT^ 22% °< women 75-84 these rates increase To lX ^ b* th* « WOO,en (\ i C ,)....... , . 10 '^/o 'Or men fcLS isc id 1.4% lor men and 46% lor women (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2013b, Table Al). For v adults, the psychosocial consequences ol widowhood include intense emotional grid", loss of social and emotional support, and loss of material and instrumental support. Emotions of depression, anger, shock, and overall grief as well as yearning lor the deceased partner are observed b and 18 months alter the loss (Carr, House, Wormian Neese, & Kessler, 2001). Most older widowers remarry, whereas the majority of widows remain unmarried and live alone Widows. Witlows must learn to function socially and in ,!„.,, own households without the presence of a marriage partner. Adaptation to this role requires resilience, creative problem solving,, and a strong belief in one's personal worth. A woman who is widowed al age 60 can expect more than 20 years ol life in which to create a new, single head-ol-household lifestyle. (1|,|m,,n i(j tin- bereavement ttselt, a number ol stress-hallenae the coping resources of widows. Studies of ■ changes among, widows show that many experi-reased expense, jusi prior to widowhood, as well .u|.,-d decreases in their financial resources lor years following widowhood (ban & Zick, 2000; Gillen & Kim, 2t)iV)) Women who have never participated in the labor market during their married years may have no marketable kills and feel insecure about entering the labor force. They may be uninformed o DesPite cheext Z?P*ny ^dowhonT P3in and Pronged grid thai ac-y 3 "tUdv of w ^ W°men "'P^vith it success-S"^ become l!°men 60 through 98 who had !"f'CienCy ST; th£re "« a high degree of self-S£°* ^PortaZuf°rmed a "toy of daily tasks, * o,l 1 and Provide yg'ene- ^ncKl and other dect-'oefS- W°« than M***1 suPP<>n, without help from thp31rs' yard work It "1C>' ™™aged their own home ,„„ StudX a pi' "f( ,ega' questions without help, from 2 *loni*g at a hieh I6"1,1*65 of older, widowed women ch uninR 'rom >V °' indePendence and autonomy SJt ■ ReSea^h Zt T™' d^ding on where help & iena(es> AuMnUfa a„ri o °lher nati°nal samples in ,he Unit** i' "C£- ***h ma'y ," H°n« K°ng con/irm ,1ns picture. ResJ-J,recoVcryo^ expresscd in a vanety o/ways, mclnd- ,m0nths and vl r efficac* are commonly observed b,, , Mdowh„ZarS fo!,°wing widowhood. Women fern 31 a'ter a pe '? ^ ^icult negative life C/ both receive P°Sitive 1*« o^llt life &i ^ich Dun"8 & C^an 200« Pr°Vide social support to othj W^' ^ &Nc 6ldman- * Beaumont, 2000, aa|!d?' a»d friend S find SUPP»''' from tbefr-*»«* , y he'"S,s'ers S, °v- "me, a widows siblings, esF / fd dir^t 'ins? C°me a key™™ oiemotiord&r of I?°PP^. In a mental ass''s'ancc with home rep^ ■i . 8r«Up discussion, con "lc P^itive and rial5,/r -.....' negative contributions oU ^ ^ port network were analyzed (Morgan, :U |ship iel«0,^ described their nonfamily, reciprocal frienfaroity ttt*^ ships as somewhat more positive than their ships. In many cases, widows found that as a own sense of family obligation, they were OX live events occurring in their families, esped* 7^ ^ ness, and the death of other Family members. fr0tti events added to their distress and prevent<7he time ol1 ceiving the support they fell tbev neerlcd at Own econon enee in -ay be uninformed or uneasy about iT* ^ ^ agenctes to meet their needs. For most wo^^ f ^ice ^ • Ule loss of ]ey fell they needed at Own loss of immediZ"18 a'S° concI«ded thai the most po^*-£dlate support from family, especially children Developmental Tasks 547 figure 13.10 Two old friends proves social support for each other. After they became widows, they • y ^oved into an apartment together to help manage costs. They're redwing a box of bills and receipts as they get ready to do their income ta*es.This also helps them rerni-n'sce about what they did during the Past year. _ . r anti [o talk Willingness to accept the widow's reeling? ol gne °Penly about their father. Social supp w LaUcher cluded a similar willingness to allow tn ^ ^ w;ult l0 in fmcling a new identity. I hese * ^ s[rong they h« forced to mourn loo quickly or be. i f. *The fact w«e and how well they were handling » 6 ,q a,pc and **< you've using the strength that you M O fe and they l" *ay alive (another voice: "to survive ) ^ ^ (Morgan, d°n\ recognize thai, you know it heir anger, gneh l9*9, p. 105). The widows wanted to ha ^ accepted ^ the disruption in their lives ^'^ld begin to come bV 'heir friends. In this way, they elt duy ^ ,, l0). t0 terms with their loss and build a ncv . .reases in depres- ^'Wowers. Widowers suffer g^f' do widows (Lee, ** foUowing the loss of their spouse si Wortman, S ^Maris, Bavin, & Sullivan, 2001; Uml^ heterosex-Kessl(,r . .. -^nintrao _ . ■ s-.-m Messier, 1992). Perhaps because raw - bolh tne Ual marriages rely heavily on their (asks and * ^tal support of managing daily ^nship and social ^°tional and soe.al support ol cottPJ°] when then acttVlty, their lives are more intensely c . ^ a ncv die. This may result in an immediat q[ dating and g Activlt,es js„, triage partner. In a 2-year bJ^^W* of women ^ ^dowho0d brings ^ilics ; K, Inter- ^r,age aaer widowhood, 61 %olnunk relationship by W ^ jnwlvcd ,n uw Ion ds of ^ Vl re„:„.,,, nr were in a new roman ^ ^ a hlf,,u, ^ ^ ^ ^ wpon«W^ofp^ ^ ^ ^ m ment decrease, oldci , lvement in leisure activities is hly income and level ol educatu* en , 0 e ^ ^ acuvmeS » md ,owcr stresS. Widowhood also results in increased dealli rales among surviving spouses. In a longitudinal study of married couples in the United States, the death of one spouse from any of a variety of causes, such as cancers, infections, and cardiovascular diseases, was associated with an increased risk of death lor the surviving spouse (Elwert & Christakis, 2008). The process of bereavement seems to accelerate the course of preexisting diseases and leads to increased rates of suicides, accidents, and alcohol-related deaths, To some degree, the relationship ol widowhood to mortality is tied to the well-known health effects of marriage. Depending upon the way that spouses supporl each others health, the loss of a spouse may result in less effective adherence to medical care, less adequate diet, and less social interaction and social stimulation, all ol which are known to supporl physical and menial health in later life (Elwert & Christakis, 2000). Most adults cope successfully with widowhood, either by forming a new, inlimale relationship or establishing a new, \ni.\c paukm lifestyle; however, others 6nd n difficult to recover from ihe impaci ol their loss. The Applying Theory and Research 10 Lite box Patterns of Adaptation During Widowhood illustrates the variety of patterns of adaptation to widowhood. 548 i CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE Patterns of Adaptation During Widowhood In a prospective, longitudinal study of widowhood, researchers surveyed married couples where the husband was 65 years old or older. Following the death of one partner, the surviving spouse was surveyed again at 6 and 18 months following the loss (Bonanno, Wortman, & Nesse, 2004). Five patterns of adjustment following the death of a spouse were described: 1. Common grief 2. Chronic grief 3. Chronic depression 4. Depression followed by improvement 5. Resilience The most common patterns, for 56% of the sample, were common grief and resilience.These two groups had no signs of depression before the loss.The common grief group had evidence of depression at 6 months but returned to pre-loss levels at 18 months.The resilient group had low levels of depression even at 6 months following loss. Although these groups experienced fond memories and moments of yearning for their partners, they did not experience long-term grief at 18 months. A second, unexpected pattern, characteristic of about 10% of the sample, was a group that showed a change for the better following widowhood.The participants in this group had high levels of depression before the loss and lower levels at 6 and 18 months following the loss. Participants in this group were in unhappy marriages, and many of them hod been caring for chronically ill partners.They reported being more confident and having found a new sense of personal strength in coping with the events of widowhood. Two other groups were described as chronically grieving and chronically depressed.The chronically grieving group was not depressed before the death of their spouse but continued to show high levels of depression at 6 and 18 months following the death.These widows and widowers were often coping with the sudden loss of a healthy spouse and had trouble finding meaning in the death of their partners.The chronically depressed were already depressed prior to the death of their spouse.The death added a new stressor that increased their levels of depression at 6 and 18 months after the loss. Subsequent studies of the transition from caregiver to widow support the idea that the conditions that surround the caregiving role and the quality of the marital bond, as well as the physical and mental health of the surviving spouse, wM influence the coping process (Pruchno, Cartwright, & Wilson-Genderson, 2009).The majority of adults are able to cope effectively with the loss of a spouse. An understanding of the context of the loss and the emotional well-being of the surviving spouse before the loss are important factors that influence the bereavement process. Those striving to support widows and widowers need to be mindful of these differences in order to offer appropriate interventions. Critical Thinking Questions 1. Summarize the contexts of widowhood that might determine how a person adjusts to loss. 2- Imagine that a person has spent several years caring for a dying spouse. Describe the aspects of W loss that might result upon the dea of the spouse. 3- Consider the case of couples rth° have been happily married for4 years or more. List the challenges widowhood when one spouse die Identify the resources thatirligh* useful to support adjustment un these conditions. 4- explain how widowhood rniQ" influence the resolution of the Psychosocial crisis of integrity versus despair for the survi^nQ spouse, either positively or negatively. ,,,mi.nlv social activities with family and friends, most l omnium; .... Recent widows and widowers who were more involved in i j, ,„.,. activities had lower levels of stress than those who 1^1 ,,,,, participate. This does not mean that they were less bereaved, but perhaps social activities helped them to feel less isolated and gave them a sense of continuing, social value (Patterson, 1996). Different types of leisure activities are available that meet variety of psychosocial needs. Table 11.1 shows the percentage of older adults, ages 55 to 64, 65 to 74, and 75 and older, who participated in live types ol ,elS".amS, p1^ least once in the prior year: exercise pr0g j gp^ps sports, chanty work, going to the m0Vie5, * ^eni^ \jf, (U.S. Census Bureau, 20121, Table ]202)' Jvely l>llle the list .n each of these age groups, with rela ^ ^ ference between those 55 to 64 and those 65 ^U^' g A range of needs may be met through lelSU' ^ri^ eluding companionship and social integral0 '^nC<: something new and unusual, opportunities t competence and mastery, finding soli"1 Developmental Tasks ] 549 TABLE 13.1 ACTIVITY* (% PARTICIPATOR PUYSfOBTS CHAWTYWOWt 60TO MOVIES (tfUDtNINB AGE PROGRAM 55 to 64 65 to 74 75 and older 'Respondent has participated in ilic activity ;ii least once in ■tie last 12 monthis. Source: U.S Cw«s %obk Statistical Abstract of the United States, mm Mk Nu. '202. ties r0). . 01 creativity and sell-expression, opportuni-^unirv lec|tial stimulation, and opportunities lor com-v service, raPeuc G ls SrowinS awareness o/ the health and P^Vsic-i] ° . ue °' gardening. Gardening provides regular height re ^tlV''^' inc'uding stretching, coordination, and ^egard S1StanCC' ^Pending on the size and demands of 0lllrnend ' Sa,c'enin& can help an older adult meel the rec-^ardeni IOnS '1a" an 'm"~ "'physical activity each day. Pr n^ recll,'res planning, research, and problem solved irionu'"^ * garasecl ir v°iUnteers learn abottt up-to-date research-garcle,^'" orrnation on horticulture to share with home ,llunui,rS ancl "iipleniein in the beautification oitheircom-' c's Morgan, 2005). iy^nteerism. a,1ion e'''S'n■ Volunteerism is a salienl area for activ-k3 ;,lld olrf° adu,ts- 'n the United Stales, among those •rsan aboLU 2<5% wlunteer, giving a median of 90 20| ""'''"y °1 unpaid time (U.S. Bureau ol Labor Statis-"le'11. in I- 'sPcciai/y in the year or two following retire-?Crvice areV'C'Ua's wno are 1101 already involved in volunteer I 7). V^l CSpec,a"y °Pen to considering il (Cam & Cass, ';ii'y /i/c ° Unteenng provides a meaninglul siructttre to ' e;>PeCalry when other significant work and hmily roles are becoming less demanding. High rates of volunteering are associated with increases in life satisfaction and improved perceptions ol physical health (Van Willigen, 2000). At the same time, certain types of volunteer work have been shown to have a positive impact on cognitive complexity and memory functions. The opportunities to assume new responsibilities and learn new skills are two of the rewards of volunteering in later adulthood (Newman, Karip, & Faux, 1995). Johns Hopkins University researchers compared the health of volunteer tutors in Baltimore's public schools with that of nonvolunteers, ages 59 to 86 (Pried, Carlson, Freedman et ah, 2004). The following benefits were observed: • Sixty-three percent of volunteers had increased their activity level, compared with 43% of nonvolunteers • Volunteers boosted their weekly calorie bum by 25 percent. • Volunteers reduced TV-watching time 4 percent whereas nonvolunteers increased theirs by 18%. • Their networks of friends expanded, whereas nonvolunteers' social circles shrank. • Volunteers perceived that they were making a difference: The students they tutored became better readers—and had fewer behavior problems ai school Expanded research built upon this study through collaboration wiih Experience Corps, a high-intensity volunteei program. Older adults were trained as volunteers to tutor elementary school children. The program combined goals to support health among older adults and reading competence among children. Studies ol the health impact of this program on older adults across 17 national sites found evidence ol significant health henelits and reduced symptoms of depression among volunteers (Hong & Morrow-Howell, 2010). Exercise. Physical exercise is becoming a locus of leisure activity for increasing numbers of older adults because the benefits are linked to better health, positive self-esteem, and a new zest for life. Almost 50% of adults ages 65 to 550 S CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) Lng involved in an exereise program clur-. thFe prior 12 months. Research suggests a relationship between physical frtness-especially a regular pattern ol erobic exereise—and the improvement ol certain visual-soatial cognitive abilities that typically decline with age. in the oast professionals were reluctant to encourage vigorous activity for older adults. They believed that a person who was unaccustomed to active physical exercise might be harmed by it. However, research on exereise in adulthood suggests that adults profit from a program ol exer- -ise and that through systematic exercise, some ol the negative consequences ol a sedentary lifestyle can be reversed (Riehe, Burbank, & Garber, 2002). bor example, Hopkins and her associates described a program in which women ages 57 to 77 participated in a low-impact aerobic dance class three times a week lor 12 weeks. The program included stretching, walking, dance movements, large arm movements, and major leg muscle movement. Alter 12 weeks the group showed improvement in cardiorespiratory endurance (walking hall a mile as last as possible), flexibility, muscle strength, body agility, and balance. A comparison group of women who did not participate showed suability or decline in all ol these areas (Hopkins, Murrah,Hoeger,& Rhodes, 1990). Physical exercise has been identified as a component ol optimal aging- Regular participation in moderate activity, such as walking, biking, or gardening, lor 30 minutes a day may provide protection from certain chronic diseases and ease the discomfort ol arthritis (DiPietro, 2001). Exercise is associated with increased muscle lone, strength, and endurance, which build confidence about ones body movement, coordination, and stamina, lixereise also increases perceptions of self-control and self-efficacy in meeting ones own needs. As a result, people who exercise lend to have a generally more positive self-evaluation and higher levels ol self-confidence than their inactive peers (Clark, Long, &r Schiffman, 1999; Fontane, L996). Fitness training has also been shown to contribute i" improved cognitive functioning in older adults, ,. ipecially in the area of executive control processes such as decision making, problem solving, and emotional regulation (Kramer & Willis, 2002). Redirection of energy to new roles in later adulthood requires a degree "I flexibility and resilience that often goes unnoticed in observations ol older adults. Try to imagine wl,.„ |i|e might l>e like for you 30 or 40 years from now. Will you be prepared to embrace the technology, lifestyle, or a„e p,|,. expectations thai you will encounter during your own later adulthood? We are impressed by how readily most older adults adapt lo new roles, especially those of retiree anc] widow, lor which there is little early preparation or social reward. FURTHER REFLECTION: Describe some of (lie challenges a person might face in redirecting energy to new roles in later adulthood. What might prevent a person from giving tip earliei Lden engaging i" new activities? Speculate about the relationship between life satisfaction and redirecting energy to new roles. If you are satisfied withy0^ilh why would you want to redirect energy (o new roles? Ijy°u rience significant role loss, will it undermine life satisfaction Developing a Point of View About Death •7 objective 4. Summarize the development of a view about death. point of £u""gJ^er aduhhood.il is inevitable that serious, pff] BMoung, Preoccupations about death will fill the IdW* the 1 d"8 "f 'n middle adulthood, most people expert*1* in 1 h ! I'"' Pa,'en,s- Duri"g ^er adulthood, ones pre* ou I "? S,b,ln«S and sP°useS -ay die. These deaths ources of psychological stress and require the emotional £ ^ °* gnel and mournme and the cognitive strain of ny these own mot .tint" CjUS > of grid and mourning and the cognitiv to accept or understand them. At the same time, l"_^nrtaliiy. stimulate a more immediate recognition of ones Changing Perspectives About Death The development ol a perspective on death IS 3 process that begins in childhood and is not fully ^ycb hi later adulthood. The earliest concern with ! of an irreversible state of lifelessness. Toddle ( g„d to think that a person may be dead at one "undeaded" the next. By middle school age, L unli|' formulation of a conceptualization of death bee mgly well articulated from early through late' a f then ly'y°^RDCn, the Process of forming * P Dur/n n« , as,< new questions about rao& have,/,. g, ""ddle aw,' ,T' the P^ibUhy of life alter def in1ldy ^ marlrb°°?' peoPIe agnize tW cotnesi lh° P^t (hlnr halfoftheirlives. Thereto* d«- Z th£ futUfe. The issue of del* * °" theil? Sa*etirrlnT* 95 P™* unci older rel**** gree ^ W, ' f^^ties. Increased feel*?* *St°hC>8ain ^faction from their of, ***y abo ^rations determines the **** k y« m "y usually ailows fduks t0 accept f ''•■-< !U'Kk^ood, ego concerns about ^ • ---nwn lives & r ■ -aft 0 40 ntlties or hi T"' ,nciivit|t'»Is come to accept their own p, ^.Jved them and begin to see death as a n*« "U llfe sPan. Death no longer poses a threat » Developmental Tasks I 551 val"e, the potential for accomplishment, or the desire to m(luenee the lives of others. As a result of having accepted °ne's life, one can accept its end without discouragement. As 7 ca* of Morne Schwartz suggests, coming to terms with pth does not imply a desire for, but an acceptance ol the lacl of death. Along with this acceptance may come a greater ^PPreciation for life itself. It takes great courage to face the lacl of one's own death and, at the same time, to live out 7 days of ones life with optimism and enthusiasm. Oldei adults who achieve this degree ol acceptance ol their death ^Preciaie that the usefulness of their contributions does not necessarily depend on their physical presence (KuPler-koss, '969, 1972) , Th= notion that one's understanding of the concept ol J8* changes with development is complemented by the ldea Aai people go through a process in coming to terms Wlth Aeir own death. In the 1960s, Elisabeth Kubler-Ross engaged in groundbreaking work to understand the thoughts, feelings, and needs of patients who were dying. Through her !fnterviews wilt, more than 400 patients, she began to-cur-"V a Process of coping with ones death. She identified five ^ that are likely to occur between the awareness of a -"1,nal i"ness and ultimate acceptance ol one's death: den I, »ger and resentment; bargaining for a reprieve; d*P"*^ ^ mourning one's death; and acceptance or a willing ess ° face the reality of one's death. She also d*cove ed.how J^mcst people were to have someone who would toe ° llleir thoughts and how grateful they were to '^t wtfh 7e°ne about their death rather than have,, ireated a ;bo° or unmentionable topic (Kubler-Ross, L969/1997 pilnt ediiion, 1981/1997 reprint edition). . sequent research has suggested that there « nowg. lyP'eal oath t„ ............Some people alternate rx researcn nas suggc;.^'......- , — l>ati, m the dying process. Some people alternate oe-ac«Ptmg and denying their death. They■ und«stand situation, yet fall into periods of disbelief. Some peopk e.;*k to bring what they view as an acceptable cJos c,„ r "' ^'ymg good-bye to laniuy ,, bnae°) 'ear or denial (Kasicnbaum, 1985 WW-stages are neither a universal nor fixed 7 do serve as a useful model for considering the dynatn* Jesses that are engaged as one ^ ' 10 confront the reality of death can be seen as . I Lasi°n lor new insight. £ase study ^°RRIE SCHWARTZ REFLECTS ON HIS 'EWs ABOUT DEATH >^m. innistos, rediscovered His ^EXSS [HLS). a progressive neurological mse*°= muscles and leaves one increasingly paralyzed. Mitch and Morrie met every Tuesday fur the last 4 months of Monies life. "Everyone knows they're going to die," he said agaii t, "but nobody believes it. If we cid, we would do things differently." "So we kid ourselves about death," I said. "Yes. But there's a better approach. To know you're going to die, and to be prepared for it at any time. That's hotter. That way you can actually be more involved in your life while you're living." "How can you ever be prepared to die?" "Do what the Buddhists do. Every day, have a little bird on your shoulder that asks, 'Is today the day? Am I ready? Am I doing all I need to do? Am I being the person I want to be?'" He turned his head to his shoulder as if the bird were there now. "Is today the clay I die?" he said.... "The truth is, Mitch," he said, "once you learn how to die, yoi i learn how to live." I nodded, "I'm going to say it again," he said. "Once you learn how to die, you learn how to live." He smiled, and I realized what he was doing. He was making sura I absorbed this point, without embarrassing me by asking. It was part of what made him a good teacher. "Did you think much about death before you got sic beonl, llKT 10 'he cement of a generative orient^ "ro 1 ,dCSCIibe themsel^ ^ religious, those who of self ' SUPP01t W. ;,n<( i hose who have a strong* deathfT 'eSS likc'y t0 be preoccupied with the ^ ve b'T & EhaSOn- 200°)- f4 (2003.) extended d-P* ^f0^ on the relation hip of self-beliefe id** C L f adU"S Wh" have « positive sense of self-f^ ,( li,e unknown following death and les^thc HMVV. lto3 lUtll VI L11C UlllMlt'WII LWi-WT—c? [(1 U^''^'" If' the pain and suffering associated with dying- 1 t0 ge sense of spiritual self-efficacy—one's PetceivT^as sn'°,lg eraie spiritually based faith and inner strengt.-" ^ jy associated with low levels of death anxiety (HSU1L Death Anxiety hear of personal death, or death anxiety, is natural and normal. Death may be feared for a variety of reasons, some ol which relate to the ai tual process of dying and others to the consequences ol it. (loncerns about the process of dying include fears ol being alone, being in pain, having others see one uffering, or losing control ol ones mind and body. Con-i ems about the consequences of dying include fears of the unknown, lossol identity ("People will forget about me"), the villi that others will feel, the- decomposition ol the body, and pom Jin inn oi pain in the hereafter (Tomer &r Eliason, 2000). Several researchers have considered the sources of personal anxiety aboul death and the changes in preoccupation wiih death al various age-,. Although older adults seem to ihiuk aboul death more Irequcnily than do young adults, they do noi appear to feel mote threatened by it. In comparison to middle-aged adults, older adults experience lower death anxiety (SinolT, losipovici, Almog, & Barnett-Greens, 2008). Among the elderly, it appears that those who have higher levels of self-worth and sense of mastery also have lower levels figure 13.11 The ritual of a graveside service. '"'[" ents oi °" ^ rate from their loved one before the burial. Many el r,e, an° tgry mourners gathered and supporting each other in atl1 tional funeral are depicted here: the flowers, the to |jned The Psychosocial Crisis: Integrity Versus Despair 553 may be one FfLfCTI0N: Developing a point of view about death ihc s°cietal m across cultures. What are lV/,«' ure\hK0UrCCS "Ult hdp PC"P'C addreSS lhc"' mmalHy? 50 for that 'iT"Sl Pful ulcas vou have encountered in vow life ]v>il aid yon in dealing with the challenges of this task? Jhe Psychosocial Crisis: ™*&ity versus Despair Cr,sis QfJECT,VE 5- Define and explain the psychosocial introspe gnty versus ^Pair, the central process of and tho °tl0n'the pnme arJaPtive e8° Quality of wisdom, Pathology of disdain. arid cm ■ adulthood, adults draw on the competence S°'ution 'Vlty allainecl during middle adulthood to invent 'Tlotjvg^ '"'heir changing conditions. As life progresses, desire f0°n achievement and power may give way to a and ce[ • UntterStanding and experimenting with new roles 'ateradoh0nS'li'')S' "1C t0^'ers ncec' '" ' and role loss or role transitions, arc integrated Otents Ta^Scssniei"H of one's past aspirations and accomplishes^ nougntsofthe past may be fleeting or a constant even(sl0n Memories may be altered to 111 contemporary tieni0l°r contemPorary events may be reinterpreted to lit 01 a life"'!' r,le achievement of integrity is the culmination is the 0 Psychosocial growth. Psychologically speaking, it "toestio *« °' 'he Pyramia in thai it addresses the ultimate reality f' | Uow do 1 '"id meaning in life given the ultimate '1spjre c,e;"h?" Achievement of integrity in later adulthood ^Uen y°Un^er aKe groups to continue to struggle with the 6^ of their own life stages. '^tegrity ,lhe tern, i kls to the ntegrity , as it is used in psychosocial theory, re trl Win 8 y t0 accept the facts of one's life and face '° S[ep k l0UI Sreal fear. As people get older, they need fVehis 0f *T anc' '"'d a way to integrate or reconcile the 'a,'e hgj .heir liFe with the hopes and dreams they may 11 ''leir early or middle adulthood Tins process of meaning making involves an assessment of ones life and the extent to which worthwhile goals were sought and achieved. In a search for life's meaning, a person looks lor a way to assemble a coherent story of order, purpose, and value out of the complex puzzle pieces of a life (Krause, 2004;Reker, 1997). The attainment of integrity is ultimately a result ol the balance of all the psychosocial crises that have come earlier, accompanied by all the ego strengths and core pathologies that have accumulated along the way. Integrity comes only after some considerable thought about the meaning of one's life. Older adults who have achieved a sense of integrity view their past in an existential light. They appreciate that their lives and individuality are due to an accumulation of personal satisfactions and crises. Integrity is not so much a quality of honesty and trustworthiness—as the term is used in daily speech—as it is an ability to integrate one's past history with one's present circumstances and to feel content with the outcome. Most people have some regrets. One may look back and wish that one had taken advantage of certain opportunities, been smarter about saving or investing money, or Spent more time with ones children while they were young. The challenge in achieving integrity is to lace the decisions and experiences ol the past with acceptance. In this process, a person seeks to hnd an integrative thread that makes sense of the life one has led without belaboring past mis takes. The concept of sense of coherence has been linked to integrity and well-being in later life (Antonovsky, 1987; Wiesmann & Hannich, 201 1). People who view their lives as understandable, manageable, and meaningful are thought to benefit from this sense ol coherence, h is a construct that combines a cognitive ability to make sense of life experiences, an emotional optimism that things will, by and large, work out favorably, and a behavioral component that involves taking steps to achieve desired goals (Eriksson & Lindstrom, 2005). Given the abstract and subjective construct of integrity, bow can it be measured? One approach was devised by Neil Krause (2007) who created a four-dimensional measure of meaning in life. These dimensions included ( I) having a system of values, (2.) having a sense of purpose. (3) having goals lo strive lor, and (4) reflecting on the past to reconcile one's accomplishments with one's goals. Taken together, these four dimensions comprised a meaning in life scale. In a longitudinal study of older adults. Krause examined how various forms ol social support as well as anticipated social sup port related lo meaning, in life over a 4-year period. Those older adults who received high levels of emotional support had higher meaning in life, but those who received tangible social support had lower meaning in life. Anticipated support, that is believing that you could call upon close family and friends for help il it were needed, was the strongest predictor of meaning in life. Over time, anticipated support was also a significant predictor ol changes in a persons sense of meaning. 554 ! CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) When older adults are confident that they will be able to count on others for help in the future, their sense ol meaning in life is bolstered. This Finding speaks to the role ol the radius ol significant relationships in predicting and sustaining a sense ol integrity in later adulthood. It also suggests a continuing role for trust and hope, the very earliest psychosocial concepts ol infancy, in fostering integrity in late life. In addition, new research suggests a link between genera tivily and integrity. Older adults who have made meaningful contributions to the quality of life for future generations can draw on these experiences to find meaning in their own lives. As suggested by the data on voluntecrism, lor many adults generative action continues into later adulthood and extends beyond care lor one's immediate family to concern about the larger community (Ehlman & Ligon, 2012; Schoklitsch Sr Baumann, 2012). Despair rite opposite pole of integrity is despair. Il is much more likely that adults will resolve the crisis of integrity versus despair in the negative direction than that infants will resolve the crisis ol trust versus mistrust in the negative direction. For infants to experience trust, they rely on the benevolence ol a responsible caregiver who will meet their essential needs. In most cases, this caregiver is present, and the infant learns to count on others. In order to experience integrity, however, older adults must incorporate into their self-image a lifelong record of conflicts, failures, and disappointments, along with accomplishments. They must confront what is sometimes referred to as the "death of dreams"—a realization that some ol their most cherished hopes for themselves or their children cannot be accomplished in their lifetime (Oates, 1907). Older adults may also lace some degree of ageism— devaluation and even hostility from the social community. The negative altitudes expressed by family members, colleagues, and younger people toward the perceived lack', of competence, dependence, or old-fashioned ways of older people may lead many ol them to feel discouraged about their self-worth. The gradual deterioration or los , ol certain physical capacities— particularly hearing, vision, and motor agility—contribute to i.....Icier person's frustration and discouragement. Older adult i recognize that ihey cannot perform certain tasks as well as they did in the past or that their domains of indepen-dcnl linn lii nun;', am I ma ilery have diminished. furthermore, there isa general cultural sentiment that the death ol an older person- -in contrast, lor example, with the death ol a child or youth -though sari, is not a great loss to society, because that person had already contributed to society and lived a loll like T bus, older adults may perceive that society is already letting go of them, even before they are ready to let go ol life (Jecker & Schneiderman, 1994). All ol ihese factors are likely to create a feeling ol regret about ones past and a continuous, haunting desire to be able to do things dillerently, or ol bitterness over how ones lile has turned out. People who resolve the crisis ol later adulthood in the direction of despair cannot resist speculating about how ihings might have been or what actions might have been taken if conditions had only been different. They are preoccupied with the if-onlys of their past, disrupting a calm acceptance of death. Despairing individuals either seek death as a way of ending a miserable existence or desperately fear death because it makes impossible any hope ol compensating for past failures. Depression The theme of depression has been Heated in several sec-lions of this text. C.ivcn the close link between the concepts of depression and despair, it should come as no surprise that depression has been a topic of research in the study of adulthood and aging. Nearly 8% of persons aged 12 years and older (6% of males and 10% of females) report current depression, females have higher rates ol depression than males in every age group. Males aged 40-59 years have higher rates of depression (7%) than males aged 60 years and older (5%). Females aged 40-59 years have higher rates of depression (12%) than females aged 60 years and older (7%) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012c). Many of the same factors that are associated with depression in younger age groups arc also associated with depression in older age groups: poverty, poor physical health, lack of social involvement, and being single, divorced, or widowed. The risk of depression in later life cannot be attributed to the aging process itself. The negative physiological changes associated with aging—such as high blood pressure, reduced breathing capacity, reduced muscle strength, slower reaction time, memory loss, and loss ol visual or auditory acuity—are not associated with depression in and of themselves (Hinrichsen & Clougherty, 2006). Older adults vvbci have a clear sense of coherence about life, those who view their situation as comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful, are more likely to be resilient in the lace of chronic physical illness than those who view their lives as chaotic and out of their control. Thus, depression as a complex affective and cognitive syndrome docs not automatically come with the territory of aging, but it occurs in a subset of older adults. It is especially likely among those who have experienced a decreased activity level; have reduced access to a significant, close, confiding relationship; and have accumulated physical health problems that limit their independence and dampen the sense of enthusiasm for pleasant activities (Wiesmann & Hannich, 201 3). The Central Process: introspection In order to achieve a sense of integrity, a person must engage in introspection, a deliberate process of private, personal reflection and self-evaluation. The final achievement of a sense ol integrity requires the ability to introspect about the gradual evolution ol life events and to appreciate their significance in the formation of the adult personality. This state can be reached only through individual effort. It may even require temporary isolation, shutting out the influences ol potentially competitive or resentful associates. One mode lor engaging in self-evaluation is reminiscence. Reminiscence is the recollection of past experiences and the recalling or retelling of memories from long ago. This process ol nostalgic remembering allows adults to recapture some of the memorable events in their life histories. Reminiscence may be a playful recalling ol a life adventure or a painful review of some personal or family crisis. The process ol simple reminiscence has been described as comprising four elements: the selection of an event or story to retell or review; immersion in the details of the story, including the strong emotions linked to the event; withdrawal from the past by distancing oneself from the event or comparing past and present; and bringing closure lo the memory by summing up, finding some lesson, or making a general observation. Through this kind of process, a person builds a mental and emotional bridge between the past and the present (Meacham, 1995) (Figure 13.12). to recapture some of the memorable people and events in their life histories. The Central Process: Introspection | 555 Reminiscence is linked to positive adjustment in later life, especially better health, a more positive outlook, and a better ability to cope with the challenges ol daily lile (Kunz & Soltys, 2007). However, not all forms ol reminiscence arc ol equal benefit. In particular, reminiscences ol the integrative or instrumental type tend lo be associated with high levels ol well-being, whereas obsessive reminiscences arc not. Integrative reminiscence involves reviewing ones past in order lo find meaning or to reconcile ones current and prior leelings about certain life events. Instrumental reminiscence focuses on the past, on accomplishments, efforts to overcome difficulties, and experiences to help cope with current difficulties. Obsessive reminiscence suggests an inability to resolve or accept certain past events and a persistent guilt or despair about them (Korte, Cappeliez, Bohlmeijer, & Westerhof, 2012; Wong & Wall, 1991). Contrast the following two narratives: When 1 was a teenager, my parents broke up and both remarried. 1 was very resentful because they did not seem to care about my leelings or needs. But as I grow older and look back, I understand thai t hey were really not compatible with each olher. They had sullercd (or many years before their divorce. [Integrative reminiscence] My husband died when 1 was away lor two days visiting my friends in the West. 1 le fell in the bathtub and eventually died because there was no one there to help him. It lias been years now, but I still cannot forgive myself for leaving him home alone lor two days. [Obsessive reminiscence] (Wong & Watt, 190 I, p. 270) Reminiscence appears to lend continuity to older adults' sell-concepts. They can trace the path ol their own development through time and identify moments that were ol central importance in the crystallization ol their personal philosophies. Through reminiscence, older adults can revise the meaning ol pasi events by using current wisdom to understand or accept what took place in the past. For exam pie, reminiscence was encouraged in a group of veterans who had been involved in the Normandy invasion at the end ol World W;tr 11. flic veterans retold their experiences of loss, grief, and shock and how those experiences influenced their lives over the subsequent 50-year period. Formulating their experiences in a story-like format and retelling their stories lo others provided a means of coping with the stressors ol this past experience (I larvey, Stein, & Scott, 1995). Reminiscence serves as an integrating process that has positive value in an eventual attainment of integrity. In a review of 20 studies with older adults who sullercd from depression, guided reminiscence was found to be as effective as drug treatment or psychotherapy lor alleviating depressive symptoms (Bohlmeijer, Smil, & Cuijpers, 200 5). In excess, however, reminiscence can dominate reality, taking over the time and energy that might be directed toward more appropriate active social Involvement, Sonic adults tend to dwell 556 | CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) at- on sad events and allow earlier disappointments to preoc- 5. Recognition and management oj uncer'fl'n^j^totally cupy their current thoughts. In that case, their past lives ing the realization that the future canno ^ ^ ^ take precedence over their current circumstances. No new predicted and tn«< - events can compete successlully with past memories lor their attention. The benefit of introspection lor well-being and the sense of integrity depends on the person's ability to cope with the material that was called etp from the past. Two effective coping strategies that have been linked to mental health in older adults are assimilative and accommodative coping. In assimilative coping, the person recognizes the signiheance of past events and their links to important life goals. This „„-Hna memory. a"" 1 . , ... f . '. ,,. . , , tuning, a rich and complex woiKing torag provides a positive sense oi continuity, ammune the focus , , , r information i°' im. , ■ err , r,i ability to organize large amounts oi iruonu» ;n['orm and meaning of life events, even if the past events were trou- ,\ 6 „&„, , , ,.vnerts to help 1111 see , ,. , i . ,, . and subsequent recall. We rely on experts w m£tost bhng. In accommodative coping, the person recognizes the ..... , , .. , ,u"' need to revise their appraisal of the situation. The person re- P°nam a,U dif&CUl' d^clslonS-}n ™ alizes how the difficult events of the past led to the moclilica- e^erlsfs h™n* ,n,lhc:' P.' lion of goals which, in turn, created a new and valued sense ' 1 of meaning (Cappeliez & O'Rourke, 2002; Cappeliez & Robilaille, 2010). n8 the realization that the future cannot be totally Predicted and that many aspects of the past and present are not fully known, plus an ability to manage and cope w>lh this uncertainty One of the concepts that helps link the idea of intel"-Z 06 m later adulthood with the ego strength of wisdom'5 expernse. With age, individuals who locus their intelligent n intensive study, training, and repealed opportunities ft* oblem solving within a domain become experts. A #f> ° ime,,CCtllal Processes support expertise, including ded«£ ve reasoning, a rich and ^ ^ memory, and tW ability to orrani7f, i„.......... ,. ,■ for storage The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core Pathology Wisdom Erikson identified wisdom as the prime adaptive ego quality of later adulthood in that it reflects a detached concern for life and a desire lo learn and communicate essential lessons from experience in ihe lace of impending death (Erikson el ah, 1086). Wisdom has been characterized by live basic features (Ardelt, 2004; bakes. Smith, & Staudinger, 1092, p. 272; Kramer, 200 V, Staudinger, liorner, & Mickler, 2005): 1. I;(K liuil knowledge aboul fundamental Life matters, such as general knowledge aboul the human condition and spcoiiic knowledge about lile events, their age-related occurrence, and their expected and unexpected course. 2. I'iim olntdl knowledge, composed ol strategies for approaching the management and interpretation of life mailer., including linking past, present, and future. I i|c >pan ' ontextualism, approaching problems with the realization that events arc embedded in a multidimensional coniexi including age-related, culturally defined, role-related, and sociohistorical frameworks_ and that evenf; take their meaning from certain disiinct domains, especially family, work, and leisure. 4. Relativism oj values and life goals, allowing the person to appreciate differences among individuals and societies with respect to the priorities they place on certain values, as well as the ability to preserve a certain core of universal values. \iti , 3Vmg wisdom ^ their particular special""; ^though wc may be inclined to look to experts in one W 0 help us solve a wide range of problems, the assump^ behind expertise k ,„a, „ ;,.„...,.„„.....Jn thaL sense, behmj ' " w,ut: ran8e 01 Prot oehmd expertise is that it is discipline specific. 000 U W'Sd0,n are ™ identical (Horn & U**>* ^00, Masunaga & Horn, 2001) , Not all people who live to old age function at * *f vf Wlsd Howeye S ,n lc er adults hnd that there are contexts in which sot Ld?;nslnue a greater desree°f insight and < g stall. When asked to analyze situations invoMj lniergroup and intern*™.....,i ......n,„„ „M«r adults also need 'oi'com reasoning, multiple perspective ed° m°re <^«y acl Pr0m'Se than ganger adults. tM 5 a'ld ^ need nr'edS-' the limJol'their to* N, ' P'^imn th° lake *e specific context into account path nUnia et.1 imn?*16 °' the S![u™ (Gross*** who 3rd ^rea'si ° E*dence ™Sg<*« that there * Zl ' CSp^ly hg W'Sdom *™ng certain xnoX^f S eXPe"e^ce £ ° find '"sightstbout life horn th« "'Uii ' ^raeit-2010; Choi anc' 'ess critical in (heir laler im a§eothers S W,1H develop disdain are more likely to dispar Cla'-' l986)nd C,eLacl1 'rom lile worlci around l,u-ni (Krikson f^ífoři c FLEcr/ON: Explain how reminiscence and intro-integi'Uy V"U Ultc t0 the resolution of the psychosocial crisis of <-on/U;St'S £'ťs/'í"'': WTiiW experiences from earlier stages tlkniťn»- te 10 « person's ability to reflect upon and evaluate ^y/herorhislife? ('°'"-? to% "IV" definition of wisdom? Where doyou seek wis-^Sht hei''1 !Viscloim wouldyou want to pass alone, to others that \ n'm cope with life's uncertainties and achieve a sense ^e al^0^0aal Perspective assumes that new growth lakes ^"wth ,,, ,£ry sta&e of life. Summarize the new directions foi 1 lateradulthood. ^'ednopic Retirement tJnc,erslJECT'VE 6- ApP'V theory and research to 3nd|ng the process of adjustment to retirement. periods of employment. Some people dclmc retirement as the time at which people begin to receive social security or other pension benefits, regardless ol iheir employment sta-tus. However, retirement also refers to a psychosocial transition involving role loss and role gain—a time for redirecting energy to new roles, new opportunities to promote intellectual vi^or, and new sources of life satisfaction. As one withdraws from the formal structure of work and alters one's occupational Identity, the transition brings increased time for reflection about the meaning and purpose of one's life. To the extenl that work has provided a basic structure lor ones lifestyle, withdrawn] from the structure and significance of paid employment can be replaced by other activities, new relationships, and a new sense ol purpose. Of course, some people never retire; some die before they reach retirement age; and others continue to work on a pari time schedule. Some people ol retirement age leave then primary job and take another full-time or part-time job in a related held or in a totally cliifcicnt one. Many adults who are self-employed or whose work involves creative skills, such as acting, music, painting, or writing, simply continue to work into their late adulthood. 1 he 1 abor Statistics til- ing, music, p.,..... ,,,o their late adulthood. Projections from the U.S. bureau of Labor Statistics indicate that in (he coining years there will be an increasing involvement of older adults in the labor force. Table I 5.2 shows the percentage of men and women at two ages, 65 to 74 and 75 and older, who were in the labor force in 1988, 1998, and 2008 as well as projections lor 2018. The rate of laheir force participation was relatively stable lor those .....iditlthood and elderhood between l°-S8 and 1998. "■^ed substantially, especially T Šor force P-^^d between ^ ---^ľuuct that has ol ^ p, a^ , .ly ^ ^ i nSVcbologicalf^rerňent is tha cvCr, by 200* one lhud cement is a societal and 0f retire ^b t atld D) _ * variety of definitions. One c • round ^ -cement is a societal «u~ . .option «' , nti lecw*-J variety of definitions Oned^ und earlier lhe Person works less than foil c;U-ncd lf,,mc from a retirement p 558 I CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) table 13.2 Civilian Labor Force Participation Rates by Age and Sex for 1988,1998,2008, and Projections for 2018 MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN MEN 65-74 21.3% 75+ 7.4% WOMEN MEN WOMEN 11.9% 2.4% 22.6% 7.5% 13.7% 2.9% 29.7% 10.4% 21.1% 5.2% 34.4% 13.9% 27.1% 7.7% Source: U.S. Bureau of tabor Statistics. (2009a) Table 3 3 Civilian l»h™ i„ ■ ■ . '*»■ HW.P«**!«! 20IB. Ifouieved Augt a 2-1 2010 ,lralf rtlc'l»"™> «tesby age, m race and ethrviofty, 1988. mm li, alio, from http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep table 303 htm to 50% of women in later adulthood will be working Thus although retirement will still be normative in later life a growing segment of the older population will be workin (U.S. Bureau ol Labor Statistics, 2009a). income Loss Much ol the information about retirement planning and the decision to retire focuses on financial considerations (USA. gov, 2013). II one works Irom the ages ol 25 to 65, there are another 25-30 years ol lile ahead. Think about what is required to support 30 years ol retirement during 40 years ol paid employment. Most financial planners suggest that there is about a 25% to 30% reduction in income alter retirement, which is somewhat greater for those who retire before age 65. Although work-related expenses, taxes, and child care expenses may decrease, health and recreational expenses may II the source5 increase. In addition to reduced income, not an ^ ^us, of income are adjusted to keep pace with inllaU°ffle (ijSA the value of retirees' fixed income declines ovct •gov, 2013). r£dfrOl0 and other ■ time 1 in f've Older householders' annual income is deriveel li''^^^^ primary sources: social security, property (Fisher pensions, earnings, and supplemental security mC^hese vari" & Trenkamp, 2010) (see Figure 13.14). Access to ^te$ ous resources varies by race and ethnicity, with 0 and having greater access to personal assets and pe supplc-Asian Americans and llispanics drawing more Jn20l°-mental security income clue to their poverty Statu ^otf the median income for households lieade Jc0nipar , 66 years old and older was $31,461. This can b to a median household income of $62,342 for a .^^tl-headed by someone ages 45 to 54. About 9 h ^ level-als 66 years and older had incomes below the p° Asian alone Hispanic 26.0 23.1- .24.1. security 12.5 10.2, 7.7 Asset 2JL S^ilPerCenta^^-ivi„g income from Maj income Pens ;iony Earnings or Sources, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2008 Retirement 559 folder adults who Poverty is greater for older minorityi*[ ^ live alone CDeNavas-Walt, Procto, andb ^ explanation c_______r„,.f.,-c ,,-e an important p» ..... , , 4. Involved spectators: They are still psychologically involved in their former lile but arc no longer active in it. 5. Searchers: They are looking for their special niche, exploring, and then moving on. 6. Retreaters: They are stepping back, taking a break to decide what to do next. 7. Disengaged: They are depressed, uninvolved, and unable to find a path forward. ,L normal retirement age. Employer-proviucu befits have shifted from guaranteed pension plans to de- (Uned contribution plans, so thai workers can continue to genef jts 0f Retirement •~ .!,„;,. retirement fund for every year they wotk. , ,^ ^nrAe look forward to in retirement? Weiss (1997) <-■■■■■ after retirement , . »wn who were 'verly is greater lot o'^' d Smith, iuw « alone CDeNavas-Walt, P^*£L of the explain Economic factors are an i-Pf^ market for J tong* for why people are staying in the bo Social secunty time. The age at which one can W*v ^ t cO benefits has increased to an older age _ m worU afte, . ,.„„iiv; or conu nme. The age at wmcn [or m0ic — benefits has increased to an ^/^mg to work after Wts, and there is no penalty lor ^ ,dcd reuremcn the normal retirement age. Exupljg P planS to d k-.c..,. ut fmm euaranteectp ..... ronUnue to Ml i ■---- h care benefits alte. -"avc decreased, so t, : „ an incentive to continue work-»ig until one reaches the age at which Medicare benefitsare liable (Mermin, Johnson, & Murphy, 20071 rhe recent gnomic downturn and the slow recovery have resulted lhe ihcreased need to support adult children. b 6 noi"tnal retirement age. befits have shifted from guaranteed pension pia,.., - "led contribution plans, so that workers can continue to Benefjts of Retirement ^tribute to their retirement fund for every year they work. ^ ^ ^ ( h2 °yer"Sponsored heaIlh care benefitS after retirement g longitudina] sludy of men anU wo|| so ihere is an incentive to COn"n^^s°are over age 63 and intended to retire in the coming year or had recently retired. Most anticipated that retirement would bring a reduction in stress, especially in coping with the challenges and crises of the workplace. Workplace conditions such as lack of challenge, reorganization, and downsizing (with its accompanying increased demands on the remaining employees) are stressors that workers are glad to leave behind when they retire (Menkens & Tazclaar, 1997). |n a study of young retirees ages 51 to 59, the most commonly mentioned pc)sitive aspects ol retirement were the lack ol pressure, more lime with their spouse, and the ability to relax (National Academy on an Aging Society, 2001). People who come to the point ol retirement from a context of lifelong well-being arc likely to adapt well to this transition. They have had experiences of goal attainment, management of their lime, effective social support, and invigorating intellectual stimulation which provide continuing resources after retirement. We can imagine that they will In into one of the positive pathways described above, and find a satisfying direction (Hallerod, Orestig, &r Stan in, 201 5) adjustment to Retirement lament during the retirement transition is an individ-y Process. Although we tend to think of retirement as an V^> It is really a long period of time in which people ,° cl*% their sense of purpose and meaning, and red Je ^ture of their daily activities. Adjustment to retirement ^Pected to change with time. Mchky QM»V°P»* of anticipation, transition, and eventual adaptation. J*' barkers in this process include (1) a honeymoon pe-°d- which is busy and positive; (2) a disenchantment or ]^ > Phase, in which the meaning and structure ol wo **** (V a reorientation phase, in which a more reahsU ™»riod, which may la sty\e fomentation phase, n. , 'nor j5 created; and (4) a stable period, which may one's ^eyrS Un"' changes in health, Financial resources, (Figure 13.15) HoSt S'!tia' suPport system rcnuirc a significant revision. C,ated vv' h ac'u'ls C0Pe ^flectively with the changes asso- 1 retirement, viewing it as a desired transition. In LJITTIC • -*uen iv •,v'niiion for or fettfern nowever, they often re ^c-soc' ?£ S'1(>u'c' have included more ernpucw-cIUsivel 3Spects °' this change rather than focusing so > kil|C P°st"retiremcnt years. In her research, she charac-cli|J\LVCn Pat'ls lilr°tigh retirement and beyond that cap-fences in how people shape their Future lives: - '".inner identity, b ture lte differences in how people , ■ former identity, but 1 Continuers: They maintain the" » [q their forme in a modified way. They stay con cxpa,Kling in work and work-related identities ( new directions. k~.A dream or tr work and work-rev<*Lc« , ., a fivean1 ui ' new directions. unrealized ■■ Adventurers: They pursue . ^ ^ something new. h day as it ^oraeS' 3- Easy-gliders: They take tact Difficulties with Retirement In contrast to those who are adjusting easily, a subset of re-lirees report declines in life satisfaction, especially those who experience signilicani income loss, poor hcalili, or death ol a spouse, events that are age-related and may not be aiirilnitcd specifically to retirement. Approximately one third ol adults report signilicani difficulty during this process (Pinquart & SchincWer, 2007). Perceptions ol retirement involve a persons enthusiasm, positive anticipation, or resentment about It. This is linked to the important ways in which work sirttctures ones lifestyle throughout early and middle ackilthoocl. In addition to the obvious functions ol paid employment—especially income and social status—a number ol latent functions provide important psychological benefits (Jahoda, 10H2; Lo & Brown, 1999). Work provides a structure for the use of time; a context lor social contact; a content for sell-identity; regular, predictable activities into which one can channel intellc-ctttal, physical, and emotional energy; and a sense of partici|ia-lion in it collective effort. Retirement may be perceived as and no pressures. 560 i CHAPTER 13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) resulting in deprivation in each of these areas and therefore presents a threat to psychological well-being. Several measures have been devised to assess the stresses associated with retirement and the anxiety people feel as they anticipate il. Sharpley ( I 007) found that when retirees reflected on factors that caused them stress in everyday living, three areas emerged: missing work, problems with personal health, and relationship issues. The concept ol retirement anxiety refers to apprehensions that adults have as they anticipate retirement (Lleicher and I lansson, 1001). It illustrates how people come to rely on work as a primary social structure and highlights the difficulties they face as they confront the transition to retirement. Lor those who suffered I ram retirement anxiety, two factors were especially troubling, hirst, people who had high levels of retirement anxiety worried about the loss of structured social involvement and connci lion. I his concern was linked to worry about losing Incnd .hips, being lonely, and having little in common with lormer coworkers alter retirement, Second, people worried about having lo be assertive or proactive in finding new relation hips and activities that would meet their needs. This concern was linked to a general difficulty in handling life transitions, a high level ol uncertainty about the future, and a general feeling ol lossol identity. Although one might think thai people who have high levels ol' retirement anxiety Would use services that help people plan lor retirement, this was nol the case. I hey may try lo deny this transition by avoiding planning and counseling sessions. In addition to worries about being unable io meet social needs following retirement, some adults find the transition difficult because they feel a kick of control. People have expectations about how long they plan to work and at what age they will retire. When people perceive that the)' are working or nol working by their own choice and that they determine how much work to do, they have higher levels of health and well-being. However, when they perceive that their level of involvement in work is being decided by someone else and have little say in it, they are likely to have more difficulty adjusting to retirement, more health problems, and a greater incidence ol depression (Gall, Evans, &r Howard, I 007; Schultz, Morton, &t Weckerle, I 008). Especially for men, those who expect to work on into their late 60s and are forced into retirement, this lack ol control over exiting from the workplace is predictive of lower well-being and reduced life satisfaction (Clarke, Marshall, &r Weir, 2013). CASE STUDY ANNA QUINDLEN WRITES ABOUT RETIRING AS "STEPPING ASIDE" FOR THE NEXT GENERATION OF WRITERS Anna Ouindlen, who wrote "the last word" for Newsweek for 9 years, explains why it's time for her to move on. The baby-boom generation has created an interesting conundrum for this country. Born between 1946 and 1964, boomers take up more room than any other generation in American History. They now account for about a quarter of the population. And so, inevitably, they have created a kind of bottleneck, in the work world, in politics, in power. The frustration this poses for the young and Retirement 561 talented should be obvious. In my personal life it was reflected powerfully on the clay when, talking of the unwillingness of my friends to retire, my eldest child noted, "You guys just won't go."... Today we have an entire generation of Americans who seem dedicated to the proposition that they will fight aging to the death. Quite literally. And that means staying front and center professionally. The unspoken synonym for "emeritus" is "old." And old is a word we don't even use anymore in polite conversation, a modern obscenity.... I believe that many of our old ways of doing things are out of date, including some of our old ways of looking at, and reporting on, the world around us. Since the day he delivered his Inaugural Address, when I was 8 years old, people have been quoting the youthful John F. Kennedy saying that the torch had been passed to a new generation. But torches don't really get passed very much because people love to hold on to them.... If I had any lingering doubts about giving it up after almost nine years, they were quelled by those binders on my desk, full of exemplary work by reporters young enough to be my children. Flipping through their pages, reading such essential and beautifully rendered accounts of life in America and around the world, I felt certain of the future of the news business in some form or another. But between the lines I read another message, delivered without rancor or contempt, the same one I once heard from my own son: It's our turn. Step aside. And now I will. Source: Quincllen, 2009. CASE ANALYSIS Using What You Know 1. Explain how the developmental tasks of later adulthood are reflected in this narrative. 2. Evaluate the accuracy of Ms. Quindlen's analysis about the reluctance of the baby boom generation to retire. Discuss the factors that might account for the baby boom cohort's approach to retirement. 3. Summarize the ways the psychosocial crises of generativity versus stagnation and integrity versus despair are related to Ms. Qundlen's decision to retire. Retirement for Couples From a systems perspective, it makes sense to think about adaptation to retirement in the context ol the other life roles one is playing. One of the most relevant is the marital relationship. With the large number of married women in the labor market, it is important to consider the impacl ol retirement for a couple as well as for the individual. Retirement transitions can involve one partner remaining in the labor market when the other retires, both partners retiring at about the same time, and one or both partners retiring from their primary work and becoming involved in secondary work tiller retirement. These configurations can have consequences for the couple's marital satisfaction because the change in work status affects their relationship. The Cornell Retirement and Well-being Study focused on workers and retirees ages 50 to 72. Participants were interviewed once in I994-1995 and again in 1000-1007. Among the people in this sample, 25% were not yet retired and their spouses were also not yet retired. For another 36%, both the respondent and the respondent's spouse were retired. In the remainder, one spouse was working and the other spouse was retired. Several observations were made about marital quality during this transition. First, both men and women reported decreases in marital quality when they moved from work to retirement. The role transition from work: to retirement appears to have a short-term negative impact on the marriage. Second, il one spouse remains in the labor market and the other retires, the retired partner reports more marital conflict. In this case, the stress ol the role transition from work to retirement seems to be compounded by the lack of synchrony between the partners in the structure of their daily lives (Moen, Kim,