What is special about academic English?
Everyday words and academic uses
Many words in academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are often
also used with a slightly different meaning, which may be specialised.
everyday or academic use meaning academic use meaning
Standards of discipline in abi/ity to control Nanotechnology is a relatively area of study
schools have declined. oneself or other new discipline.
people
Underline your family drawa line The research underlines the gives emphasis to
name on the formo under it importance of international trade
agreements.
The lake was frozen solid. not liquid or gas We have no solid evidence that certain or safe; of a
radiation has caused the problem. good standard
Vocabulary and academic style
• In writing, academics use many expressions which are neutral, but they also use rather
forma I expressions which are not common in everyday language. Knowing whether an
expression is formal or just neutral is important.
neutral more (ormal neutral more (ormal
in short, briefly, basically in sum, to sum up try attempt
only sole(ly) mainly/mostly primari/y
almost / more or less virtually typicalof characteristic of
However, very informal vocabulary may be used in spoken academic styles in classes and
lectures. Learn to understand such language when you hear it but be careful not to use it in
essays and written assignments. Here are some examples of teachers using informallanguage.
'OK. Have a shot at do ing task number 3.' [more formal: Try/Attempt to do ... ]
'There's no way schools can be held responsible for failures of government policy.' [more
formal: Schools cannot in any way be held ...]
• Academic language tries to be clear and precise, so it is important to keep a vocabulary
notebook (see page 8) and learn the differences between similar words, as well as typical
word combinations (underlined here).
The building is a prime example of 1920s architecture. [excellent in quality or value]
The group's prim ary concern is to protect human rights. [main / most important]
Noun phrases
Academic language puts a lot of information into noun phrases rather than spreading it out
over a whole sentence. For example, instead of saying Radiation was accidentally released
over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area for a long time, an academic might say The
accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-term damage.
It is therefore important to learn the different forms of a word, for example:
noun verb adjective( s) adverb(s)
accident accidental accidentally
quantity/quantification quantify quantitative/quantifiable quantitatively/quantifiably
Finally, be aware of 'chunks' or phrases which occur frequently, and learn them as whole
units. Examples: in terms 0(, in addition, for the most part, in the case 0(, etc. (See Unit 16.)
I O Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exercise«
1.1 Each word in the box can be used irr two ways, one an everyday way, the other a typically
academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same word for both sentences and
making any necessary grammatical changes.
generate turn solid confirm identify underline character pose nature focus
1 A She loves to for photographs in front of her fabulous house.
B The events . a threat to stability in the region.
2 A It was difficult to .....the camera on the flower as it was so small.
B We should ... .....our attention on the most important issues.
3 A I called the airline and.. my reservation.
B The data my hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health.
4 A The power plant ....electricity for the whole region.
B This issue always .. a great deal of debate among academics.
5 A The murderer was .. . from fingerprints discovered at the scene.
B In this theory of history, progress is closely . .. ..with technology.
6 A She became interested in .. conservation.
B The first lecture in the series was on the . of human communication.
7 A Jim's a very interesting . . ... I hope you meet him.
B The book attempts to explain the fundamental of sociallife.
8 A I saw her to her hus band and whisper something in his ear.
B Let us now.. to the subject of town planning.
9 A He always every new word when he's reading.
B The study. .. . the fact that very little research exists.
10 A The liquid became ..as the temperature was lowered.
B The study lacks . evidence and therefore its condusions are doubtful.
1.2 Use more formal alternatives to the words in bold. Make any necessary grammatical
changes.
1 The book is mainly concerned with the problem of policing the internet.
2 Almost every school in the county had reported problems with the new system.
3 The work of the Institute is not only devoted to cancer research.
4 Basically, we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the two events.
5 We tried to find a new way of understanding the data.
6 The study is a really good example of the way sociologists collect their data.
7 The reaction is typical of the way large corporations keep control of their markets.
8 There's no way London can be compared to Sydney as a place to live and work.
1.3 Read the text and then answer the questions.
The production of plastics depends heavily on petroleum, but a novel way of making
plastics out of sugar could reduce our reliance on oil The discovery that a chemical
in sugar can be converted relatively easily into a substance similar in structure to the
material obtained from petroleum has led to the claim that plastics could soon be
produced cheaply using the new method.
1 Underline two verbs with adverbs after them which it would be useful to learn as pairs.
2 Underline two adverbs next to each other which it would be useful to learn together.
3 What are the noun forms of the verbs produce, rely, discover and claim?
Academic Vocabulary in Use I I
2 I Key nouns
This unit focuses on some frequent and important nouns in academic English. See also Unit s
10, 11 and 15.
General nouns referring to ideas
example (with prepositions underlined) comment
She wrote an article on the subject of class. thing which is being discussed, considered or studied
The theme of the poem is emigration. main subject of a talk, book, etc.
The students were given a list of essay topics. used to refer to what one is studying or writing about
There was a lively debate on the issue of subjectlproblem which people are thinking/talking about
globalisation in the seminar yesterday.
Political theory is a popular undergraduate subject. statement of the rules on which a subject of study is
Einstein's theory of gravitation has been based or, more generally, an opinion or explanation
questioned recently.
The model of climate change presented in the a representation of something as a simple description
Stern Review seems to be becoming a reality. which might be used in calculations
The book is called 'The Nature of Intelligence'. main characteristic of something
Human behaviour is based on the principle of basic idea or rule that explains how something happens
least effort. or works
More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena
example (with prepositions underlined) comment
Repetition is an important aspect of speech one individual part of a situation, problem, subject,
development in children. etc.
Automatic backup is a feature of the new software. a typical quality of something
The politi cal motives for the governmenťs actions are range of a subject covered by a book, discussion,
beyond the scope of this essay. class, etc.
The study revealed a pattern of results which showed a regularly repeated arrangement
could be interpreted in either of two ways.
During 2005, the number of violent attacks amount or level
increased to an alarming degree.
Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes and activities
Read these titles of academic books and articles. Note the key nouns and their prepositions.
Micro-organisms in water: their signifi.cance' and ídentífícatíon?
Renewable energy: a criticalassessmenr' of recent research
The Case4
for Change: Rethinking Teacher Education. Towards a New Approach5
Perspectives'' on Ecological Management: A study of public awareness/ of river pollution
Citizens' Views on Healthcare Systems in the European Union
Epidemiological research into8
asthma and allergic disease: establishing a standardised methodology"
, importance 2 ability to establish the identity of something 3 judgement of the amount, value,
quality or importance of 4 arguments, facts and reasons in support of or against something
5 way of considering something 6 different particular or individual ways of considering
something 7 having special interest in or experience of something, and so being well informed
8 research is often also used with the preposition on 9 a system of ways of studying something
Research is uncountable. Don't say They carried out some interesting leseolCiÍes. To make it
plural you can just say 'studies', or 'research studies' or 'pieces of research'.
I 2 Academic Vocabulary in Use
Academic Vocabulary in Use I 3
Exercises
2.1 Look at A. Choose the most appropriate noun to complete each sentence.
1 Environmental topics / issues / principles should be at the top of today's political agenda.
2 In the exam students had to choose three from a choice of ten essay subjects / theories /
topics.
3 There are still people who are reluctant to accept Darwin's model / topic / theory of
evolution.
4 The professor decided to take moral courage as the issue / theme / model for his
inaugurallecture.
5 The London underground map is best understood as a model / principle / topic showing
how the different stations re1ate to one another rather than a precise representation of
their distances from each other.
6 The Peter Issue / Principle / Theme states that members of a hierarchical group will
usually end up being promoted to the point at which they become incompetent.
2.2 There are six phrases containing errors underlined in this paragraph. Can you correct them?
The study showed that local police can play an important role in
crime prevention. U makes a strong case of boosting the numbers of
community police officers although it warns against increasing police
presence on the streets at an alarming degree. Us methodological was
based on a range of interviews asking members of the public for their
views in how best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implement
this recommendation was out of the scope of the study but at least it
serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue.
2.3 Look at these titles of academic books (A-H). Then match them to their subject areas (1-8).
A The Nature of Democracy 1 econorrncs
B The Significance of Dreams 2 education
C The Features of Glaciated Landscapes 3 literature
D The Assessment of Language SkiUs 4 history
E An Approach to Free Verse 5 geography
F The Identification of Bees 6 psychology
G Perspectives on Modem Taxation 7 politics
H New Perspectives on Cleopatra 8 zoology
2.4 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
1 The study revealed a regular scope of your research.
2 The research focuses on one particular awareness of the problem.
3 The writer makes a powerful issues facing the world today.
4 The writers take an original into the environmental effects of nanoparticles.
5 Until recently there was little approach to their theme.
6 I think you should broaden the aspect of modem society.
7 To date, there has been little research pattern of changes in temperature.
8 There are many important case for restructuring parliament.
Key verbs
In this unit we look at some important verbs in academic Eng1ish.
Verbs for structuring academic assignments
Look at these tasks which students have been given. Note the key verbs.
Discuss some of the problems involved I in investigating attitudes to diet and health. Write a critical
review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigation you yourself could conduct/.
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
Starting from rest, an aircraft accelerates to its take-off speed of 60 m s-I in a distance of 900 metres.
lIIustrate3
this with a velocity-time graph. Assumlng" constant acceleration, finds how long the take-off
run lasts. Hence calculate'' the acceleration.
'The fact that nations agree to follow international law demonstraees/ that we can identifyB ideals that
are trans-national and trans-cultural,' How far is this statement true? Critically analyse any recent event
which supports or challenges" the statement.
Examinelo
how industrial growth has affected any two developing countries. Providell
statistical
evidence where necessary and include a discussion of likely future trends.
I which are part of/included in 2 organise and do 3 draw something in order to explain
something 4 accepting something to be true 5 discover by calculating (see 6) 6 judge the
number or amount of something and adding, multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers
7 show, make clear B recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what they are
9 questions whether it is true 10 look at or consider carefully and in detail II give
More key verbs
These ex.tracts from academic books contain other key verbs.
ln developing methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can classířy' ways of
establlshing? quality of life into two main types.
The length of time spent on the tasks may account for3 the decrease in motivation which was
seen" in many of the participants.
The data presenteď in Chapter 3 showed" that the age of the subjects was not the main factor.
Political theory attempts7
to build bridges between different schools of political thought
I divide things into groups according to their type 2 discover or get proof of 3 explain 4 see is
often used in the passive in academic style 5 given 6 proved 7 (forrnal) tries
Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs
Often in academic style, a verb + the noun form of the key verb is used.
verb verb + noun example
explain give/provide/offer an explanation The model provides an explanation for the differences
(oflfor) between the two sets of data.
explore carry out an exploration (of) Kumar carried out an exploration of music genius.
emphasise place/put emphasis (on) The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training nurses.
describe give/provide a description (of) The book gives a description of modern Europe.
V.''",~.The verbs offect and effect ,!re different. To affect means to influence, to effect means to
make something happen / to bring about. The burning of fossi/ fue/s has negatively offected
the global climate. The procedure has been successful and has effected a return to normal
functioning ofthe engine. See Unit 30 for more on affect and effect.
14 Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exerc;ses
3.1 Mateh eaeh verb from A in the box on the left with its synonym from the box on the right.
affect attempt calculate challenge demonstrate
identify include investigate provide
compute distinguish give influence
involve question show study try
3.2 Choose the best verb from B or C to eomplete these sentenees. Put the verb into the eorreet
formo
1 As can from Table II, participation figures have been steadily falling since 1970.
2 Different authors have........ for the Presidenťs actions in different ways.
3 Mendel attempted to devise a system for the many different types of pea
plant that he grew.
4 It is often most effective .. . your data in a chart or table.
5 The data we have collected that there has been a downward trend with
regard to job satisfaction over the last 50 years.
6 The aim of the research is .. .... a new software application which will help
aviation engineers design more sophisticated aircraft.
7 The archaeologists should be able to use carbon dating techniques .. ......exactly
how old the bones are.
8 Charles Darwin attempted the existence of different species in terms of
evolution.
3.3 Explain the differenee between the sentenees in each pair.
1 Greig's article supports Park's theory. Greig's article challenges Park's theory.
2 Describe the new tax regulations. Discuss the new tax regulations.
3 Lodhi provides new data. Lodhi considers new data.
4 Titova conducted four sets of experiments. Titova examined four sets of experiments.
5 Lee established why such changes OCCUf. Lee investigated why such changes OCCUf.
6 Okaz assumed that the data were reliable. Okaz praved that the data were reliable.
7 Illustrate the magnitude of the deceleration. Find the magnitude of the deceleration.
8 The events effected economic development. The events affected economic development.
3.4 Rewrite eaeh sentenee using the word in braekets and make any neeessary ehanges to other
words.
1 Erikson's theory explains the fluctuations in the figures for this period. (PROVIDES)
2 Bevan explored the relationship between family backgraund and political ambition.
(EXPLORATION)
3 The book describes the life and times of Abraham Lincoln. (DESCRIPTION)
4 Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition.
(PUTS)
3.5
I
ln academie style, noun phrases ean often be used instead of some of the key verbs.
Complete eaeh phrase with the appropriate noun. Use a dictionary if neeessary.
1 investigate = conduct, carry out an 4 affect = have an on
.......into/of 5 attempt = make an . to/at
2 illustrate = provide an .. of 6 classify = make, pravide a.. . of
3 analyse = pravide, carry out an . of
I
·Using the tasks in A as a model, prepare some assignmenttopics for students studying any
subject that you are familiar with.
Academic Vocabufary in Use 15
4 I Key adjectives
For any adjective it is useful to know whether it is typically followed by a specific preposition
and whether it has any synonyms (adjectives with a similar meaning) or antonyms (adjectives
of opposite meaning).
Adjectives and prepositions
Here are some extracts from academic texts, with adjectives followed by to or af
~:;-d;~:~~~~~;s-'----'
I relatlve ' to one's own past performance,
i or relative to that of others.
Some of the responses to the questionnaire
were specific" to young male respondents.
Others were common' to all the respondents.
~~ť\"'7~,.,,~,~~~
How can we make science relevant? to
environmental policy? Poor communication
between scientists and politicians is
charaeterístíc' of the situation today.
"....We
need to plan technologies which are
appropriate'' to the needs of small farmers.
It was typical of the farmers in the study that
they had a negative attitude to technology.
I true to a particular degree when it is being compared with other things 2 connected with what
is happening or being discussed 3 (rather formal) typical of 4 only found in 5 belonging to or
shared by two or more people or things 6 suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion
Adjectives and their opposites
Look at this abstract from a dissertation on drug abuse. In most cases you can work out the
meanings of the opposites (which follow each numbered adjective), based on the definitions.
r- =_..__. _.~.._.~- -
I
We cannot discuss drug abuse as an abstract' problem without considering concrete examples
of abuse and their social consequences. Abuse is rarely a símple? issue; it usually results from a
complex set of circumstances. Both quantitatlve ' and qualitative research is necessary to gain
a fuU picture of the situation. By combining research methods, we may obtain an accurate picture
of the causes and results of abuse, in contrast with the inaccurate assessments which often
result from purely quantitative studies. A siqnificant" amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the
notion of abuse, and the media have a role which is also not insignificant in promoting such fears.
I The dissertation concludes that rough5 estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made
;~.more precise by properly defining addiction.
I existing as an idea, not as a material object; opposite: existing in a form that can be seen or felt
2 having or made of only one or a few parts 3 based on numbers and statistics; opposite: usually
research using non-number-based methods such as interviews, focus groups, etc. 4 important or
noticeable 5 fairly correct but not exact or detailed; opposite: exact and accurate
Other important, frequent adjectives and typical combinations with nouns
There was an apparentl
discrepancy between the two sets of results.
We noted a potentiaF problem with the experimental design which we had to deal with first.
The princip aP cause of the failure was a sudden temperature change.
The research used a rigorous4
methodology which had been tested on many occasions.
I seeming to exist or be true 2 possible when the necessary conditions exist 3 first in order of
importance 4 careful to look at or consider every part of something to make certain it is correct
,~Remember to say tyPical 0(, NOT tyPical {&. Learn adjectives with the prepositions that
often follow them, as in A.
16 Academic Vocabulary in Use
Exerc;ses
4. I Look at A. Correct the preposition errors in these sentences.
1 A lengthy discussion of the advantages of solar power is not relevant with an essay that
required you to focus on wind turbines.
2 It is typical to the disease for it to start with an itchy rash.
3 This methodology is not appropriate about the kind of research you are planning.
4 The use of original metaphors is characteristic from the writer's style.
5 Relative with previous attempts to explain the phenomenon, this interpretation is quite
persuasive.
6 The dark hair and eyes are common for all people from the region.
4.2 Rewrite each sentence using the opposite of the adjective in italics.
1 Karlsson checked the figures and agreed with me that they were accurate.
2 The solution to the problem is a simple one.
3 Make rough calculations before you begin to write up your results.
4 The army played a significant role in events.
5 Hernandez prefers to discuss ideas in abstract terms.
4.3 Match the adjective on the left with the noun it often combines with on the right.
1 apparent methodology
2 ngorous problem
3 principal discrepancy
4 potential cause
4.4 Now use one of the combinations from 4.3 to complete these sentences.
1 There is an in your figures.
2 Managemenťs refusal to listen to the workers' demands was the .. ....of the riots.
3 Lamaque devised a . . ......which has since been used successfully by many other
researchers in the field.
4 We spotted a .. . with our procedure and so we changed it in two areas.
4.5 Choose the best adjective from the box to complete these sentences.
qualitative complex potential rigorous specific
1 The plant is difficult to grow and needs very .. . conditions to survive.
2 His tutor was critical of his work for not being enough.
3 In the past the northern tribes looked on the tribes of the south as enemies.
4 We chose a.............. approach to our research and interviewed individuals personally.
5 A.. . set of circumstances led to a civil war in 1897.
I
When you come across any of the key adjectives from this unit in your reading, note it down in a
phrase so you build up a set of useful phrases using the adjective.
Academic Vocabulary in Use I7
Keyadverbs
This unit deals with just some of the adverbs that are particularly frequent in an academic
context. You will find more in other units throughout this book.
Adverbs that compare
adverb meaning example
comparatively/ in comparison with something else Our sample was relativelyl
relatively comparatively srna!l.
especially/particularly more than usual The process was not especially/
particularly difficult.
specially more than usual (spoken English only) The exam was specially hard this year.
for a specific purpose We used specially designed equipment.
somewhat (opposite: (slightly formal) a little, slightly When we tested younger boys, we
considerably) obtained somewhatlconsiderably
different results.
primarily mainly Amir is primarily interested in bio-physics.
mostly/largely almost completely (but not totally so) The research was largely/mostly
successful,
directly (opposite: without anything else being involved The illness is (in)directly linked to poor
indirectly) housing.
Adverbs that relate to numbers or time
There are approximately 20 varieties of bird in this species. [roughly, about]
There are precisely 48 different managerial posts in the company. [exactly]
Interviewees frequently misunderstood one of the questions. [often]
We eventually obtained the results we were hoping for. [in the end, after some time]
Ultimately we plan to repeat the experiment. [finally, after other things have been completed]
Adverbs that relate to how things are stated
Hall's latest article essentially' differs fram his earlier wark in that it is explicitly2 critical of the
gavernment. Generally3, his disapproval af their palicies was anly canveyed lmplkltly" in his
previaus writing, but here he specifically candemns their handling oř a number oř issues.
, referring to its main characteristics; also basically 2 openly 3 usually, also on the whole
4 not directly, suggested ar implied rather than stated
Adverbs that restrict or limit
merely = exactly and nothing more: The medication will merely make the symptoms
bearable; it will not cure the disease.
simply Note that simply can have different meanings. To put it simply, the risks of this
approach would seem to outweigh its advantages. [plainly] The book presents difficult ideas
simply, in a way appropriate for the layman. [easily; someone who isn't a specialist in the
field] The exam results were simply dreadful. [absolutely, without doubt]
hardly ever = almost never: The tribe has hardly ever had contact with the outside world.
)t: Eventuo/ly means 'in the end'.lt does not mean 'perhaps/possibly'.
We wi/l perhaps/possibly (NOT e'feA~l:Jally)discover life on other plonets in the future.
Eventually [in the end], we were oble to interview 0/1 20 children involved in the test.
18 Acodemic Vocobulory in Use
Exercises
.5.1 Look at A and B. Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair.
1 Heinrich's experiments were mostly successful.
Heinrich's experiments were most successful.
2 The results were somewhat surprising given the circumstances.
The results were especially surprising given the circumstances.
3 First-year students are direetly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees.
First-year students are partieularly affeeted by the new rules relating to tuition fees.
4 The study is primarily coneerned with urban alienation.
The study is ultimately eoneerned with urban alienation.
5 The team eventually obtained unpredieted results.
The team frequently obtained unpredieted results.
5.2 Choose the more appropriate adverb from the options.
What you are saying is essentially I merely true. To put it basically I simply, there is
specially I basically no signifieant differenee between the two writers' theories. However,
one of them writes in a simply I precisely dreadful style while the other has eventually I
possibly a more impressive style than any other eontemporary seientist.
5.3 Change the sentences using adverbs which mean the opposite of the underlined ones.
1 There were roughly 350 people living in the vil1age in 1958.
2 Parents seldom complained that the sehool authorities failed to inform them of ehanges.
3 We investigated the problem and initially found some small errors in the ealculations.
4 The temperature was exaetly half a degree lower than the average.
5 Singh (1998) is explieitly eritieal of existing theories of eeonomie growth.
6 Soil erosion is speeifieally eaused by water or wind.
7 Senior eitizens almost always use the internet to eommunieate with one another.
8 The disease is direetly linked to environmental faetors.
5.4 Underline the adverbs in these texts. Then answer the questions.
Marine conservationists are currently attempting
to save the worlďs coral reefs. One plan is to
literally glue the damaged reefs back together,
using coral artificially raised in underwater
labs. Reefs are increasingly under attack from
human activity as well as from events occurring
naturally, such as hurricanes and tsunamis.
A recent UN report warns that 30% of the
worlďs coral reefs have been completely
destroyed or are severely damaged.
Scientists have recently discovered that ants r~
can remember how many steps they have I,,,
taken. By carefully shortening or lengthening
the legs of ants, the team observed that
short-Iegged ants apparently became lost and
could not easily find their way home to the
nest. Similar/y, ants with longer legs typically
travelled 50% further than they needed to and
were also temporarily unable to find the nest.
It seems ants can defínitely count their steps.
1 Whieh adverb means 'in the same way'?
2 Find two pairs of adverbs that mean the opposite of eaeh other.
3 Whieh adverb means the opposite of 'a long time ago'?
4 Whieh adverb means 'more and more'?
5 Whieh adverb eould be substituted by seriously?
6 Whieh adverb means 'for a limited time'?
I·Find an artic/e of interest to you in your discipline and und.erline all the key adverbs.Then check
that you understand their meaning.
Academic Vocabulary in Use 19