ORGANIZATION OF UN PEACEKEEPING Fall 2017 Content ¨Launching UN peacekeeping operations ¨ ¨Running UN peacekeeping operations ¨ ¤Department of Peacekeeping Operations ¤ ¤Assembling and deploying troops ¤ ¨Troop contributing countries ¨ ¤Cold and post-Cold war era ¤ ¤Motivations for state participation ¤ ¤Top contributors ¤ ¨Financing UN peacekeeping operations 2 ¨ ¨ ¨Launching UN peacekeeping operations ¨ 3 Launching UN peacekeeping operations ¨first, the UN Security Council (SC) / the UN Secretary General (SG) identifies a threat to peace and international security ¨ 4 Launching UN peacekeeping operations ¨next, the SC authorizes the operation ¨support from at least 9 of the 15 members of the SC, incl. all 5 permanent member states 5 Launching UN peacekeeping operations ¨Cold War – difficult to come to a unanimous decision in the SC ¨ ¨à to overcome a veto, the General Assembly (GA) adopted the “Uniting for Peace” resolution (1950) (Korea) ¨ ¤GA empowered itself to recommend collective security measures whenever the SC is unable to reach a decision ¤ ¤utilized to launch UNEF I and ONUC ¤ ¤questions the authority of the SC ¤ ¨the SC determines the mandate of the operation ¨ ¨varying extent of Cold war and post-Cold war resolutions (see ONUC vs. MUNOC) ¨ 6 7 8 9 10 11 Image result for peacekeeping command structure Launching UN peacekeeping operations ¨Secretariat is the link between the will of the UNSC to respond and the multi-dimensional realities of the field operations ¨ ¨Crafting a mandate must be more inclusive than the currents needs ¨To ensure preparedness and prevent ad-hoc adjustments with delay ¨Presents a significant obstacle ¨Crucial for preparedness to protect civilians in cooperation with government – when government is itself the problem ¨ ¨Post 1999 - ‘United Nations operations do not deploy into post-conflict situations so much as they deploy to create such situations’ (Brahimi Report) ¨ ¨Daily administration by DPKO and Department of field support ¨ 12 Launching UN peacekeeping operations ¨approval for a six-month period and subject to renewal ¨ ¤usually reauthorized without much debate or change in mandate ¤ ¨implementation of UN PKOs – responsibility of the SG ¨ ¤SG makes recommendations on how the operation is to be launched and carried out ¤ ¤selects the force commander (military figure) ¤ ¤reports to the Security Council on the mission’s progress ¤ ¤appoints a “Special Representative” to a mission (diplomatic figure) ¨ 13 Where do peacekeepers go? ¨Elements increasing the likelihood of deployment (Gilligan, Stedman): ¨ ¨Number of deaths - The more severe a conflict, measured by the number of deaths, the more likely the United Nations is to intervene. ¨ ¨Length of conflict - The probability of a UN intervention in a given war increases as the war drags on ¨ ¨Small army size - The United Nations is significantly less likely to intervene in civil wars in countries with large government armies ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ 14 Biased preconceptions ¨There is evidence of regional bias in the UN’s selection of missions, but the worst bias is against Asia, not Africa. (more deaths needed in Asia to trigger) ¨ ¨There is no evidence that the United Nations intervenes in secessionist conflicts at a different rate than it intervenes in attempts to take over control of the government. ¨ ¨There is no evidence that the United Nations intervenes more in countries with high primary commodity exports (banana republic interventionism) ¨ ¨There is no strong evidence that the United Nations intervenes in democracies at a lower rate than it does in non-democracies (almost equal rate) ¨ ¨There is no evidence that the United Nations intervenes in former colonies of permanent members of the Security Council at a higher rate than it does in other areas. ¨ 15 16 17 State of affairs ¨The number of active peacekeepers has doubled in the past 25 years, from roughly 50,000 to nearly 100,000 deployed personnel. ¨At the start of 2017, there were 21 active peace operations around the world. Of the 100,000 deployed personnel, about 85 per cent of peacekeepers are military troops and 15 per cent are police and experts or military observers. ¨The average mission lasts 31 months, although there are five ongoing missions that are over 26 years old. ¨In 2016, 94 per cent of peacekeepers were deployed to sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East and North Africa. There has been a significant increase in the number of peacekeepers deployed in the Middle East and North Africa since 2005. ¨Peacekeeping is no longer only a post-conflict activity, with approximately 53 per cent of personnel deployed in countries with an active armed conflict, such as Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 18 19 20 ¨ ¨ ¨Running UN peacekeeping operations 21 Department of Peacekeeping Operations ¨day-to-day management of operations ¨ ¨none till 1992; before, peacekeepers could reach UN headquarters only from 9 am till 5 pm NY time... ¨ ¨tasks: to plan, prepare, manage and direct UN PKOs ¨ ¨political and executive direction to UN PKOs ¨ ¨maintains contact with the SC, troop and financial contributors and parties to the conflict ¨ ¨aims to integrate the efforts of UN, governmental as well as non-governmental entities ¨ ¨guidance and support to other UN political and peace building missions 22 Assembling and deploying troops ¨Kofi Annan: “Our system for launching operations has sometimes been compared to a volunteer fire department, but that description is too generous. Every time there is a fire, we must first find fire engines and the funds to run them before we can start dousing any flames. The present system relies almost entirely on last minute, ad hoc arrangements that guarantee delay, with respect to the provision of civilian personnel even more so than military.” ¨ ¨the SG asks member states to contribute troops and other personnel ¨ ¨supplies, equipment, transportation and logistical support from member states or private contractors (1989/2001 Convention) ¨ ¨civilian staff – personnel from within the UN system, loaned by member states, or recruited internationally ¨ ¨ 23 Assembling and deploying troops ¨the time necessary to deploy a mission varies, depending on: ¤ political will of member states to contribute troops ¤ availability of financial resources ¤ complexity of mandates and logistics ¤ ¨elements of UNEF II deployed within 24 hours X high-risk environments – within months ¨ ¨Usual troop strength bellow resolution provisions for entire duration ¨ 24 UN and PMSCs ¨1989 / 2001 - Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries ¨ ¨however recruitment is common practice without ¨ ¨Non-combat roles for PMSCs – specifically: ¤logistics, intelligence, demining ¤most frequently policing and protection of civilian personnel ¤encroachment on traditional UN roles as well in DDR and SSR ¤ ¨ ¨ 25 ¨ ¨ ¨Troop contributing countries 26 Cold and post-Cold war era ¨Cold war operations ¤states without direct involvement in the conflict ¤ ¤dependence on host state consent à any bias could ruin the operation ¤ ¤exclusion of contributions from the superpowers, other permanent members of the SC and closely allied states ¤ ¤if, then contributions from one member of the Warsaw Pact (e.g. Poland) and one from NATO (e.g. Canada) ¤ ¤important role of “middle powers” (e.g. Australia, Canada, India) – well-trained personnel, ¤ ¤other willing and able peacekeepers: e.g. Scandinavian states, Ireland, Austria ¤ ¨post-Cold war operations ¤restrictions on participation partly lifted ¤ ¤predominant contributors still the same ¨ ¨ 27 Top troop contributors 28 ¨expansion of peacekeeping after 1988 à expansion in the number of countries involved ¨ ¤1988 – 26 countries ¤ ¤1995 – more than 80 countries ¤ ¤2013 – 116 countries ¤ ¤Great shift in contributors during the 1990s ¤ ¤Guess which states contribute most to UN PKOs? ¨ ¤ images 1991- 03/2015 ¨ 29 C:\Users\doma\Desktop\troops.png 30 Top troop contributors 31 August 2015 contribution contrasts 32 Month of Report : 31-Aug-15 Country Totals Bangladesh 9,432 Ethiopia 8,309 India 7,794 Pakistan 7,533 Rwanda 5,685 Nepal 5,346 Senegal 3,628 Ghana 3,242 China 3,079 Nigeria 2,968 Month of Report : 31-Aug-15 Military Experts Ethiopia 113 Pakistan 95 Bangladesh 74 Egypt 72 Ghana 67 Yemen 66 Russian Federation 60 Nepal 51 India 51 Nigeria 40 UN Standby force promise? ¨Standby force ¨50 nations, 40 000 troops, China 8 000 ¨ ¤ ¨Currently - China ¨2833 troops in 9 missions ¨2 force commanders ¨High value assets – hospitals, engineers, logistics ¨2nd largest financier of UN PKOs ¨Possible upgrade to UN aerial capabilities ¨ ¨ ¨Return of Canada and the USA? ¨ ¨ 33 ¨ ¨ ¨Motivations for contributing 34 Motivations for state participation ¨realist motives – to support own interests ¨ ¨idealist motives – to promote norms and values (international peace and security, cooperation, multilateralism) ¨ ¨liberal motives – to contribute to the continuation of status quo and foster values such as democratization and good governance ¨ ¨prestige (smaller or developing states) ¨ ¨national image and reputation ¨ ¨fulfillment of responsibilities, expression of commitment to the UN ¨ ¨training and experience ¨ ¨profit (payment from the UN for each soldier) ¨ ¨campaign to become nonpermanent members of the SC (e.g. Morocco, Spain, Czech Republic) ¨ 35 Motives ¨to answer outside pressures (from allies or organizations) ¤to lend a multinational character to missions; to increase the legitimacy ¤ ¨to contribute to the maintenance of global peace and security ¨ ¨to make positive impression on the world stage, to build image and prestige ¨ ¨down payment for potential assistance of the international community ¤Baltic States – fearing inference of Russia ¤ ¨to demonstrate the ability to contribute to an operation ¤Central and Eastern European states – NATO membership ¨ 36 ¨to repay a debt for an “own” peacekeeping operation in the past ¨ ¨to keep armed forces occupied outside the country rather than meddling into domestic affairs ¨ ¤esp. Third world states where the military is not entirely under civilian control ¤ ¨to profit financially ¨ ¨to benefit by receiving equipment ¨ ¨to get experience ¨ ¨to get contact with other military forces 37 Small states and CMOs ¨limited role in international politics ¨ ¨influence by acting through IOs ¨ ¨often included in peace operations (political reasons) ¤“international image”, legitimacy ¤ambition to play a role too („we-too“ phenomenon) ¨ ¨a lot of small states have gained a reputation as peacekeepers ¨ ¨history of small states’ participation in peace operations: ¨ ¤earlier peace operations – small states contributed police ¤ ¤interwar years – small states started to participate militarily ¤ ¤during the CW – small states perceived as better peacekeepers X policies still set by powers ¨ 38 ¨advantages of small states’ participation in CMO: ¨ ¤absence of a power status à less polarized reactions ¤ ¤involvement or interest in a conflict less obvious (colonial past either forgotten, minimal or non-existing) ¤ ¤positive / crucial role in negotiations (easier to act as “honest brokers”, risk less “loss of face”) ¤ ¤attempt to do the best in order to show their ability ¤ ¤limited defence budgets à more flexible and used to improvise ¨ ¨Do you see any disadvantages? ¨ 39 ¨disadvantages of small states’ participation in CMO: ¨ ¤carry less weight in the international system à difficult to influence policy ¤ ¤kept out of decision-making processes à influence on their troops ¤ ¤appear less convincingly in an operation (not backed up by an intense military force) ¤ ¤able to contribute only limited contingents n ¤possible shortages in modern equipment ¤ ¤harder to bear casualties 40 41 ¨ ¨ ¨Financing UN peacekeeping operations Financing UN peacekeeping operations 42 ¨two basic budget levels within the UN: ¨ ¤regular budget (5bn USD) ¤peacekeeping budget (8,4bn USD) ¤ ¨UN PKOs generally financed through their own separate budget ¨ ¨standard practice established with the authorization of UNEF I (special account created) ¨ ¨exceptions funded through the regular UN budget ¨ ¤military observer missions with small budget (e.g. UNTSO in the Middle East, UNMOGIP in India and Pakistan) ¨ ¨possible funding by the parties to the conflict (e.g. UNYOM in Yemen) ¨ Financing UN peacekeeping operations 43 ¨basic guidelines for sharing the financial burden of PK set in 1960s: ¨ ¤collective responsibility of all member states ¤member states encouraged to make voluntary contributions ¤economically less developed countries – limited capacity to make contributions ¤permanent members of the SC – special responsibility for peace and security ¤ ¨ ¨the SC requested to open a special account into which the member states would contribute according to a graded scale: ¨ ¤63,15 % paid by the five permanent members of the SC (Group A) ¤34,78 % by economically developed states that are not permanent members of the SC (Group B) ¤2,02 % by economically less developed states (Group C) ¤0,05 % by economically least developed states (Group D) ¤ ¨ ¨ ¨ Peacekeeping operations expenditures 44 45 Financing UN peacekeeping operations 46 ¨few operations can really start right after being approved by the SC ¨ ¤mission budget first prepared by the office of the SG ¤then submitted and approved by certain committees and the GA ¤à adds to the difficulties of mobilizing and transporting troops to the area of operation ¤ ¨compared to the costs of war, peacekeeping is in fact inexpensive! ¨ ¨reform of financial arrangements – 3 groups of proposals: ¨ ¤Incremental change proposals ¤International taxes ¤New programs and ideas ¤ ¨ Sources 47 ¨Bellamy, A. J. – Williams, P. – Griffin, S. (2004): Understanding Peacekeeping, Cambridge, Polity Press. ¨Bureš, O. (2008): United Nations Peacekeeping: Bridging the Capabilities-Expectations Gap, Saarbrücken, VDM Verlag. ¨Daniel, D. C. F. – Caraher, L. C. (2006): Characteristics of Troop Contributors to Peace Operations and Implications for Global Capacity, International Peacekeeping, Vol XIII, No 3, pp. 297-315. ¨Diehl, P. (2008): Peace Operations, Cambridge, Polity Press. ¨Global Policy (2005): Peacekeeping Operations Expenditures: 1947-2005, on-line text (http://www.globalpolicy.org/images/pdfs/Z/pk_tables/expend.pdf) ¨Ramsbotham, O. – Woodhouse, T. (1999): Encyclopedia of International Peacekeeping Operations, Santa Barbara, ABC-Clio. ¨S/RES/143 (1960), on-line text (http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/157/32/IMG/NR015732.pdf?OpenElement) ¨S/RES/1291 (2000), on-line text (http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/313/35/PDF/N0031335.pdf?OpenElement) ¨UN (2005): In larger freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all. Report of the Secretary-General, on-line text (http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/270/78/PDF/N0527078.pdf). ¨UN (2012): Background Note UN Peacekeeping, on-line text (http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/backgroundnote.pdf) ¨UN (2013): Department of Peacekeeping Operations (http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/).