IRE107: INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
Fall 2018 Session xx: National Security II
Maya Hadar
On The Agenda
 US
 US Definition of Security Cooperation
 US Security Cooperation + Assistance Programs
 EU
 European Defence and Security Cooperation
 The failure of the European Defence Community
 North America
 Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America (SPP)
SECURITY
WARS MAKE STATES, STATES MAKE WARUS
US Definition of Security Cooperation
 Security Cooperation includes all the interactions between US
Department of Defense and foreign defense establishments, aimed at
building defense relationships, which:
 Promote specific U.S. security interests
 Develop allied and friendly military capabilities for self-defense &
multinational operations
 Provide U.S. forces with peacetime and contingency access to a host nation
 Recognizing the comprehensive nature of security relationships
Security Cooperation Programs
 Since 2006, the US government has provided more than $200 billion for
programs providing security assistance and security cooperation to foreign
countries
 Combined Operations (US operations with other countries)
 Counter-Drug Support
 Global Peace Operations Initiative
 Train and equip Security Forces in Afghanistan and Iraq
 Combined Exercises => Joint Combined Exercise Training
 International Training and Education
 Combined Intelligence Operations
 Military-to-Military Contact Program => Defense
Personnel Exchange Program
 International Armaments Cooperation
 Information Exchange Program
 Exchange of Engineers and Scientist
 No-cost Equipment Loans
 Arrow Missile (anti-ballistic defense system)
Security Cooperation Programs
 11 Different Programs
 Controlled by the Department of State
but administered and executed by the
Department of Defense
 Humanitarian and Civic Action during Military
Operations
 Foreign Disaster Relief
 Commanders’ Emergency Response Program
Security Assistance Programs
 Security Assistance has been Institutionalized after WWII
 Advances US interest in a global environment
Source: For DOS FY2006-FY2015 data: USAID Foreign
Assistance Database, prepared by USAID Economic
Analysis and Data Services
Security Assistance Programs
 Foreign Military Sales (FMS)
 Eligible foreign governments
purchase defense articles, services
and training from the US
 Foreign Military Financing (FMF)
 Congressionally funded grants and
loans which enable eligible foreign
governments to purchase U.S.
defense articles, services, and training
Source: For DOS information, email communication on September
20, 2017, from State's Legislative Affairs office
Security Assistance Programs
 Foreign Military Construction Services
 Sales and design/construction services by U.S. to eligible purchasers
 Economic Support Fund
 Supports Economic and Political Stability
 Peace Keeping Operations
 Funds Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty observers, efforts in Cyprus, Balkans, East
Timor, sub-Saharan Africa, Afghanistan and the Dafur region
 International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement
 Nonproliferation, Anti-Terrorism, Demining, and Related Programs
Security Assistance Programs
 International Military Education
and Training (IMET)
 Provides financial assistance for
training in the U.S. to selected
foreign military and related civilian
personnel
Source: For DOS FY2006-FY2015 data: USAID Foreign
Assistance Database, prepared by USAID Economic
Analysis and Data Services, April 5, 2017
ASFF = Afghanistan Security Forces Fund
FMF = Foreign Military Financing
INCLE = International Narcotics Control and Law
Enforcement
ISFF = Iraq Security Forces Fund
CSF= Coalition Support Funds
Broadening the Scope of Security
 Six-Party Talks (North Korea, US, SK, China, Japan, Russia) were a series of
multilateral negotiations held intermittently since 2003 for the purpose of
dismantling North Korea’s nuclear program
 The talks were hosted in Beijing and chaired by China
 2009 => North Korea decided to no longer participate in the six-party process
 In subsequent years, other participants, notably China, have called periodically for a
resumption of the process
 Influential in broadening the scope of security
 September 2005 joint statement explicitly links denuclearization with economic
cooperation and a peace regime on the peninsula
 Recognizing the legitimacy of other states’ security perceptions
 Confidence building through reciprocal action
Transition to Long-term Cooperation
 Multiple Party Talks, not based on grand design, but reflect underlying
strategic choices
 Real challenge is to institutionalize the cooperation beyond the immediate issue
 Cooperation goals:
 US sees the process in terms of denuclearization
 North Korea focus is on US “hostile policy”
 China portrays the process as a means to achieve regional stability
 South Korea emphasis is on reconciliation
 Russia focus is on involvement in the region
 Japan least committed to cooperative approach
Strategic Choices
 In establishing regional security cooperation mechanism, each country is faced
with strategic choice of cooperation:
 North Korea: Give up nuclear weapons program for economic security
 US: Accept survival of NK to maintain global nonproliferation regime
 SK: Economic assistance to avoid costs associated with NK collapse
 China: Accept continued US presence for regional stability
 Japan: Provide assistance to NK to avoid isolation
 Russia: Accept a marginal role to avoid exclusion
Sustaining the Momentum
 Building trust through interaction => basis for cooperation in areas beyond
the specific issues in Six-Party Talks
 Principle of reciprocity reinforces the ability to sustain support for cooperation
 Each country must correlate reciprocal action with its own national interest
 Requires transparency on issues such as disclosure of nuclear activity and
conventional build-up
 The challenge is to find ways to reinforce the value of the cooperative choice
SECURITY
WARS MAKE STATES, STATES MAKE WAR
The Security
and Prosperity
Partnership
16
 2005=> Leaders of Canada, the US and Mexico launched the Security and
Prosperity Partnership (SPP)
 The SPP:
 Aims to promote growth and economic opportunity & increase security
 Is a mechanism for developing an evolving agenda for North American
cooperation
 Builds on key initiatives (Canada-U.S. Smart Border Accord and the successes
of the North American Free Trade Agreement- NAFTA)
 Is based on the principle that security and prosperity are mutually dependent
and complementary
 Dialogue at the highest political levels
The Security and Prosperity Partnership
17
 2006 => SPP Summit in Cancun, leaders reaffirm their commitment to advance
a positive agenda for North America through the SPP and set priorities for
action:
1) Strengthening Competitiveness (including the creation of the North
American Competitiveness Council: NACC) and strengthening regulatory
cooperation (including the completion of a trilateral regulatory
cooperation framework by 2007)
2) Emergency Management Coordination
3) Cooperation in avian and pandemic influenza management
4) Energy Security
5) Smart, Secure Borders
The Security and Prosperity Partnership
18
 Need efficient and secure borders to enhance prosperity, security and quality
of life
 Leaders asked Ministers to draw on:
 Risk-based border management
 Innovative use of new technologies
 Coordinated border infrastructure development
 Moving inspection and screening away from border, where possible
Smart, Secure Borders
SECURITY
WARS MAKE STATES, STATES MAKE WAREurope
European Defence & Security Cooperation
 1947 => Belgium, the Netherlands & Luxembourg formed the Benelux Customs
Union, which broadened over the years into what the 1960 treaty confirmed as
the Benelux Economic Union
 1948 => Brussels treaty
 An agreement signed by UK, France & the Benelux countries, creating
a collective defence alliance. Goals were:
 To provide for collective defense
 To facilitate cooperation in economic, social, and cultural matters
 To show that western European states can cooperate, encouraging
the United States to play a role in the security of western Europe
European Defence & Security Cooperation
 1984 => the union was “reactivated”, emphasis on the significance of US
arms to European defense + increase regional military cooperation
 1954 => strengthened and modified to include West Germany + Italy, end the
occupation of West Germany, and to include West Germany in NATO
1955-2011 => Western European Union
 Association of 10 countries, operated as a forum for
the coordination of matters of European security &
defence
 1960 => activities of committees for social & cultural
affairs were transferred to the Council of Europe
European Defence & Security Cooperation
1955-2011 => Western European Union
 1990 => Portugal and Spain joined the union (Greece joined in 1995)
 Six associate members (the Czech Republic, Hungary, Iceland, Norway, Poland,
and Turkey), five observer countries (Austria, Denmark, Finland, Ireland &
Sweden) and seven associate partners (Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia)
 2009 => The Treaty of Lisbon took over the WEU's mutual defense clause
 2010 => members decided to cease operations, officially closed on 2011
European Defence & Security Cooperation
1955-2011 => Western European Union
 The WEU was administered by a council consisting of member states’ ministers
of foreign affairs & defense (Headquarters in Brussels)
 Council was responsible for policy formulation
 WEU’s assembly had a number of permanent committees: political defense,
technological and aerospace, rules of procedure and privileges, & parliamentary
and public relations
 Consisted of member states’ delegates to the Parliamentary Assembly of the
Council of Europe
 Met at least twice each year (Paris)
European Defence & Security Cooperation
1955-2011 => Western European Union
 Contributed to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) and worked in cooperation with it
 Became the primary defence institution of the European Union in the
1990s
European Defence & Security Cooperation
The Failure of the European Defence Community (EDC)
 1950 => The outbreak of the Korean War made the communist threat a reality
 The USA asked allies to plan for the rearmament of West Germany
 Monnet, General Commissioner of the French National Planning Board, sought to
organise European defence on a supranational basis (an idea already laid
down in the Schuman proposal): the proposal was submitted to the French
National Assembly (24 October 1950)
Schuman Plan (May 1950) => a proposal made by French foreign minister for the creation of a single authority to
control the production of steel & coal in France and West Germany, opened for membership to other European
countries. The proposal was realized in the European Coal and Steel Community, and the plan laid the foundations for
the establishment of the European Economic Community (1958)
European Defence & Security Cooperation
The Failure of the European Defence Community (EDC)
 The plan included the creation of a European army (including German units), to
be placed under a single military and political European authority
 1954 => Although the proposal was accepted by most Western countries,
the plan for a European Defence Community (EDC) was rejected by the French
National Assembly (didn’t ratify the treaty) and was abandoned
 Highly criticised by the US and Western Europe => France, which had for many
years been the champion of the European cause, found itself seriously
discredited. Intense disappointment
European Defence & Security Cooperation
The Failure of the European Defence Community (EDC)
 Following the French rejection of the EDC, some Benelux leaders started reviving
a Community plan that provided solutions to problems of economic integration
 May 1953 => Beyen, Dutch Foreign Minister, sent a letter to his counterparts in
the Member States of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in which he
set out a framework for the establishment of general economic integration,
rather than sector-based integration, with the aim of progressively developing
a true common market in Europe
 Pro-European movements suggested to revive sectoral integration by pooling
the energy and transport sectors, yet, technical & economic problems arose
European Defence & Security Cooperation
The Failure of the European Defence Community (EDC)
 Early 1955 => Monnet avoided informing the discredited French Government of
his plan for a European Atomic Energy Community
 Contacted Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak with a view to coordinating
plans for a revival of the European project, suggesting that he would shoulder
political responsibility for the initiative
 The Netherlands Foreign Minister, Beyen, and his Luxembourg counterpart, Bech,
were immediately in favour of the plan presented to them by Spaak
European Defence & Security Cooperation
The Failure of the European Defence Community (EDC)
 18 May 1955 => the Benelux countries adopted a joint memorandum, which
they sent to the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), France and Italy two days
later
 The memorandum set out a plan for reviving European integration by
extending the responsibilities of the ECSC in the areas of transport, energy and
nuclear energy, and in the economic, social and financial fields
 Examined and discussed on July 1955 at the conference of Foreign Ministers of
the six ECSC countries held in Messina
European Defence & Security: a Short History
The Messina Conference
 The Messina Conference signalled the start of the
European revival
 June 1955 => Attended by the Foreign Ministers
of the six Member States of the European Coal
and Steel Community (Luxembourg, France, West
Germany, Belgium & the Netherlands)
 Expressed their wish to start negotiations at both
levels simultaneously:
Palazzo Zanca sede del Municipio,
venue for the Messina Conference
 Examine new forms of partial integration (transport, conventional & nuclear energy)
 The creation of a common market
European Defence & Security: a Short History
The Messina Conference
 Discussions focused on the memorandum submitted
by the Benelux countries (summarised various
proposals & ideas)
 Positive concerning the possibility of extending
European integration to all sectors of the economy
 Yet, differing and conflicting concepts of Europe
 For/against supranational institutions
 For/against giving the ECSC wider powers,
giving priority to political/economic aspects,
etc.
European Defence & Security: a Short History
The Messina Conference
 Discussions focused on the memorandum submitted
by the Benelux countries (summarised various
proposals & ideas)
 Positive concerning the possibility of extending
European integration to all sectors of the
economy
 Differing and conflicting concepts of Europe
 For/against supranational institutions
 For/against giving the ECSC wider powers,
giving priority to political/economic aspects, etc.
European Defence & Security: a Short History
The Messina Conference
 Agreement was reached at dawn on 3 June 1955
 Adopted a resolution stating their determination to make ‘further progress […]
towards the setting up of a united Europe by the development of common
institutions, the gradual merging of national economies, the creation of a
common market and the harmonisation of their social policies’
 Progressively raising the standard of living (in order to ensure Europe
maintained/restored its position & influence in the world)
 Recognised the importance of developing nuclear energy for peaceful purposes
+ necessity to create an organisation responsible for ensuring the peaceful
development of such energy
European Defence & Security: a Short History
The Spaak Committee + Report
 1955 => Intergovernmental Committee, created by
the Messina Conference, met in Brussels
 Composed of delegates from the six governments,
it was tasked with drawing up a broad outline of a
future European Economic Community (EEC) and
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC)
 Worked for about a year: a general common
market or partial sectoral integration?
 Identified ways of attaining the objectives set
European Defence & Security: a Short History
 Feb 1992 => Maastricht Treaty signed, forming the European union
 Five Objectives (Art. J.1.2):
 to safeguard the values, interests and independence of the Union
 to strengthen the security of the Union and its member states
 to preserve peace and strengthen international security...
 to promote international cooperation
 to develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law, and
respect for HR & FFs
Security & Defence under the EU
 EU not to compete with NATO & Western European Union
 Art.J.4.1 TEU => The treaty covers all questions related to the ‘security of the
Union, including the eventual framing of a common defence policy, which
might in time lead to a common defence’
 Article 17 (Amsterdam) => ‘all questions relating to the security of the Union,
including the progressive framing of a common defence policy...which might
lead to a common defence, should the European Council so decide’
The Maastricht Treaty (TEU) and all pre-existing treaties, has subsequently been further
amended by the treaties of Amsterdam (1997), Nice (2001) and Lisbon (2009)
 WEU was an integral part of EU development, ‘providing the Union with
access to an operational capability’, folded into EU
 Political and Security Committee (COPS) with political and military expertise
 Nov 2001: European Capabilities Action Plan to rectify shortcomings (17
panels report on 24 shortfalls)
 Laeken Council adds ‘more demanding’ and ‘crisis’ operations to EU's security
and defence policy activities
 Dec 2003: European Security Strategy adopted
Security & Defence under the EU
 2004: European Defence Agency set up: cooperation in armaments
 June ’04: Brussels Council adds ‘joint disarmament operations’, supporting
‘combating terrorism’ and security sector reform’
Security & Defence under the EU
EU Security/Defense Operations
 Operation Artemis: French-led EU peacekeeping operation in Bunia, Republic of
Congo (DRC) in June-September 2003, to help UN mission (MONUC) stabilise and
provide humanitarian assistance
 EU Border Assistance Mission at Rafeh Crossing Point in the Palestinian Territories (EU
BAM Rafeh): Nov. 2005 after Israeli-Palestinian agreement
 EU Integrated Rule of Law Mission for Iraq (Eujust Lex): from Feb 2005, introduction
of the rule of law by assisting Iraqi judiciary
 EU Rule of Law Mission for Kosovo: largest civilian op. by ESDP – supports Kosovo
authorities in police judiciary & Customs
 EU Navfor Somalia: first ESDP naval operation, aimed to counter piracy &
robbery off coast of Somalia
Which Small States are Involved?
EU NATO (old)
 Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, Greece, Portugal
EU NATO (new)
 Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Rep, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Romania, Bulgaria
EU Neutrals
 Ireland, Austria, Sweden, Finland
EU mini-neutrals
 Cyprus, Malta
Other non-EU
 Norway, Iceland
Small States & Defence & Security
Face dilemma of autonomy vs. influence
AUTONOMY
 Try to keep control through national means
INFLUENCE
 Accept control is limited but influence may be more available the more
engaged state is
SECURITY
WARS MAKE STATES, STATES MAKE WAROSCE
https://www.osce.org/whatistheosce
OSCE
 The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's
largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization
 Originated in the 1975 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe
(CSCE) held in Helsinki, Finland
 Used to mediate between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War
 Finalized the Helsinki Accords (30 July – 1 August 1975)
 In 1994, the CSCE was repurposed to OSCE
43
OSCE
 The OSCE is composed of:
 57 Participating States
 11 Partners
 2850 Field and Headquarter operators: around 400 people in its secretariat
in Vienna, 200 in its institutions and 2,100 field staff
 Total budget of 145 million Euros
 All 57 participating States enjoy equal status
44
OSCE
 The OSCE has a comprehensive approach to security that encompasses politicomilitary,
economic and environmental, and human aspects
 It addresses a wide range of security-related concerns, including:
 Arms control
 Confidence and security-building measures
 Human rights
 National minorities
 Freedom of Press
 Conflict Prevention
45
 Democratization
 Policing strategies
 Counter- terrorism
 Economic and environmental activities
 Post-Conflict Rehabilitation
 Crisis Management
OSCE
Activities =>
 Stops the spread of illegal weapons and tries to destroy them
 Protects borders of countries such as Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Dushanbe
 Stopping human trafficking
 Provide early warning and prevention of terrorist activities
 Aids in economic growth
 Gender equality, environmental protection.
46
OSCE
Relations with the United Nations =>
 The OSCE is a regional organization (Chapter VIII of the UN Charter) and is an
observer in the United Nations General Assembly
 The Chairman-in-Office gives routine briefings to the United Nations Security
Council
Allegations of pro-Russian bias =>
 Increasing criticism in the Russian–Ukraine conflict: Ukraine argued that it failed
to monitor the implementation of the Minsk Protocol (an agreement to halt the
war in the Donbass region of Ukraine, on 5 September 2014 )
47
SECURITY
WARS MAKE STATES, STATES MAKE WAR
NATO & The
Warsaw
Pact
 By the end of the 1940s, many Westerners were beginning to worry about the
large armies which Russia had stationed in Eastern Europe
 February 1948 => a coup sponsored by the Soviet Union overthrew the
democratic government of Czechoslovakia: became Communist
 Within a few days, US leaders agreed to join discussions aimed at forming a
joint security agreement with their European allies
 The process gained new urgency in June of that year following the Berlin
Blockade => ‘proof’ that the USSR was a danger to Western Europe
NATO
Berlin Blockade: the USSR cut off ground access to Berlin, forcing the US, Britain and France to airlift supplies to their
sectors of Berlin, which had been partitioned between the Western Allies and the Soviets following WW II
 Prospect of further Communist expansion prompted the US and 11 other
Western nations to form a defence alliance
 April 1949=> The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), primarily a
security pact, was signed
 Article 5: a military attack against any of the signatories would be considered an
attack against them all
 US involvement reflected an important change in American foreign policy: For
the first time since the 1700s, the US had formally tied its security to that of
nations in Europe
 In May 1955, West Germany joined NATO (formed an army)
NATO
NATO
Unhappy with its
role in the
organization, France
opted to withdraw
from military
participation in
NATO in 1966 and
did not return until
1995
NATO
 Germany becoming a military power was perceived as a threat
 1955 (9 days after Germany joined) => the Soviet union and affiliated
communist nations in Eastern Europe founded a rival alliance, the Warsaw Pact
 Joining the USSR in the alliance were: Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the
German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, Poland and Romania.
This lineup remained constant until the Cold War ended with the dismantling of
all the Communist governments in Eastern Europe in 1989-1990
The Warsaw Pact
Like NATO, the Warsaw Pact focused on the objective of creating a coordinated
defence among its member nations in order to deter an enemy attack.
Further goals:
 Internal security component: the alliance provided a mechanism for the Soviets to
exercise even tighter control over the other Communist states in Eastern Europe
and deter pact members from seeking greater autonomy
 Soviet leaders used military force to put down revolts in Hungary (1956) and in
Czechoslovakia (1968), they presented the action as being carried out by the
Warsaw Pact rather than by the USSR alone
The Warsaw Pact
Further goals:
 Counter concerns regarding the USA following NATO’s establishment
 Counter concerns over powerful Germany
 Keeping up with the Western powers: rival body as a sign of power and
deterrence
The Warsaw Pact
NATO members
vs. The Warsaw
Pact members
NATO vs. The Warsaw Pact
NATO The Warsaw Pact
Had territory separated
by water and land (nonNATO
countries e.g.
Switzerland)
The Warsaw Pact countries
had geographic cohesion (was
one large area) and land
connections, easy to transfer
forces and weapons
A voluntary alliance of
democratic states
The Warsaw Pact very clearly
controlled from Moscow
USA was a major part
of NATO but members
were involved in decision
making
Moscow had political
domination over central and
Eastern Europe
NATO had overall
military superiority
The Warsaw Pact
“…the best way to ensure peace and
prevent new aggression … is the
organization of a system of collective
security … new measures [are
required] for strengthening the
defences of our peace-loving
countries. The treaty of friendship, cooperation
and mutual aid … is
precisely to serve these aims.”
The Warsaw Pact, 1955
“…the Parties … will maintain and
develop their individual and
collective capacity to resist armed
attack.”
“The Parties agree that an armed
attack against one … of them …
shall be considered an attack
against them all.”
NATO Treaty, 1949
Next Session...
 NOTHING!
59
60
Thank You For Your Attention!
Questions???
Good luck in the exam/essay!