IRE107: INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
Fall 2018 Session xx: National Security II
Maya Hadar
2
 Terrorism
 Definition, goals, strategy
 Types, main organizations and recent attacks
 Counter-Terrorism
 Strategies/measures
 US’ ‘war on terrorism’
 The Patriot act
 Personal liberties vs. security
 Cyber terrorism
National Security II
Definitions
 Terrorism
 Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against
noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually
intended to influence an audience
 Though Terrorism is a criminal act, its uniqueness concerns the offender’s
motivation
 Main purpose => attain political/ religious/ ideological goals
 Means => Violence against civilians (not military targets)
 Usually is carried out by subnational groups (not the army)
 Induce public fear, high number of victims
Domestic and international Terrorism
Domestic terrorism
 Unlawful force or violence by a group or an individual who is based and
operates entirely within a specific country without foreign direction and
whose acts are directed at elements of country’s government or population
 1995 => Oklahoma City bombing
 A massive homemade bomb concealed in a rental
truck exploded near the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in downtown Oklahoma City
Domestic and international Terrorism
Domestic terrorism
 1995 => Oklahoma City bombing
 2 perpetrators: former U.S. Army
soldiers, associated with the
extreme right-wing and militant
Patriot movement
 168 people were killed,
including 19 children, and more
than 500 injured
 Deadliest terrorist assault on U.S.
soil until Sep 11, 2001
 International terrorism
 Unlawful force or violence by an individual or group that has a
connection to a foreign power or whose activities transcend national
boundaries against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a
government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, to further
political or social objectives
 Types of terrorism =>
 Nationalist
 Religious
 State-sponsored
Domestic and international Terrorism
 Political extremism => Left/Right-wing
 Anarchists
Terror Organizations
 Al-Qaida Arabic al-Qāʿidah (“the Base”)
 Broad-based militant Islamist organization founded by Osama bin Laden in
the late 1980s in Sudan then Afghanistan under the patronage of
the Talibanmilitia
 Originally supported Muslims fighting against the Soviet Union (during
the Afghan War)
 When Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan (1989), the organization dispersed
but continued to oppose ‘corrupt Islamic regimes and foreign presence in
Islamic lands’
 On several occasions its leaders declared holy war against the US
Terror Organizations
 Irish Republican Army (IRA)
 Republican paramilitary organization seeking the establishment of a
republic, the end of British rule in Northern Ireland and the reunification
of Ireland
 Created in 1919, its goal was to use armed force to render British rule in
Ireland ineffective and thus to assist in achieving the broader objective of
an independent republic
 Operated independently of political control Sinn Féin, the Irish
nationalist party)
 Its membership overlaps with that of Sinn Féin
Terrorist’s Chain
Sponsors
Terrorist leaders
Bandits
Civilians (victims)
Key links + main targets are:
 Sponsors
 Terrorist leaders
Past Terrorist Attacks
 1995, Tokyo => Sarin Chemical
attach in the underground train
 Killed 13 injured hundreds
 Óm-širinkjó (Aum Shinrikyo) doomsday
cult
 11 September 2001, New York =>
New York (WTC)
 Al-Qaida
 2004 Madrid => train bombing which occurred
3 days before general elections
 10 bombs exploded on four trains in and
around Atocha Station in the city’s center
 ETA: a Basque separatist organization
 2005 London, 7/7 attack => 4 suicide bombs
 Explosions in 3 trains on the London Underground,
killing 39, a bomb detonated in a bus killed 13
More than 700 people injured
 Al-Qaida
Past Terrorist Attacks
Terrorism ‘Trends’
 Loosely organized, self-financed, international terrorist networks
 Religiously/ideologically motivated terrorism
 Growth of cross-national links among different terrorist organizations
 The proliferation of WMDs => a key concern
Counter-Terrorism Strategies
 Incapacitation of (potential) terrorists
 Deterrence by threat of retaliation or punishment
 Averting planned terrorist attacks
 Situational prevention => increasing difficulties, costs and risks
 Social and political prevention => reducing root causes and motivations
for violent radicalisation
 Disengagement from terrorism => making individuals and groups
discontinue their involvement in terrorism
 Short-term preventive strategies
 Incapacitation of (potential) terrorists
 Deterrence by threat of retaliation or punishment
 Averting planned terrorist attacks
 Situational prevention => increasing difficulties, costs and risks
 Long-term preventive strategies
 Social and political prevention => reducing motivations for violence/ de-
radicalisation
 Disengagement from terrorism
 Main challenge: Combine short and long-term strategies (not undermine)
Counter-Terrorism Strategies
Incapacitation
 Mechanism => ”Kill or capture”, removing the capacity of violent actors
to make further damage
 Actors => Military forces, police, prisons
 Measures => (Violent) force, detention,
cut funding (sponsoring countries?)
Incapacitation
 Advantages:
 Effective with key activists and groups with limited membership
 Governments usually possess relevant capacities
 Limitations and negative side effects:
 Limited effects with groups with high recruitment and strong social basis
 May reinforce recruitment and extremism
 Repression may undermine human rights and the moral legitimacy of the state
Deterrence
 Mechanism => Increasing the costs of terrorism by (threat of)
punishment / retaliation to reduce motivation
 Actors => Criminal justice system, military force,
death squadrons
 Measures => Repression, violent force, punishment, economic and
diplomatic sanctions
Deterrence
 Advantages:
 May be particularly effective towards state sponsors of terrorism
 Makes the government popular: increase public support
 Limitations and negative side effects:
 Limited effects towards highly motivated terrorists
 Can’t strike those that can’t be found
 High likelihood of “collateral damage”- family members of suicide terrorists
 May reinforce the spiral of violence without addressing root causes
Averting planned terrorist attacks
 Mechanism => Preventing terrorists from carrying out attacks by disclosing
and stopping them in advance
 Actors => Intelligence and security agencies, police, the public, news media
 Measures =>
 Intelligence (spy satellite, public cameras)
 Apprehending terrorist before they act
 Security controls (airport)
 Information sharing between agencies
Averting planned terrorist attacks
 Advantages:
 Targeted and concrete, saving lives
 High legitimacy, reinforcing confidence in the police and government
 Limitations and negative side effects:
 Innocent people may become targets of surveillance and arrests
 Danger of stigmatising ethnic and religious minorities
 Risk of striking too early/too late
 Some prepared actions may slip through
Situational prevention
 Mechanisms:
 Identify and remove possibilities for specific types of terrorist action
 Increase the efforts needed to carry out a specific attack (control access to
facilities, weapon availability)
 Reduce the rewards for a specific terrorist action (reduce access to attractive
targets; reduce publicity; deny benefits)
 Actors => Multiple (Security guards, control agencies, business organisations,
public, etc.)
Situational prevention
 Advantages:
 Targeted, Immediate and effective
 Limitations and side effects:
 Increased security measures may create a control
society: the Big Brother Syndrome
 May reduce publics’ sense of safety
Social and Political Prevention
 Mechanism => Reduce motivation for terrorism by addressing root causes
for action (if possible) and frustrations
 Actors => Governments, NGOs, peace mediators, etc.
 Measures => Conflict resolution, political processes, social development,
non-discrimination, rule of law, etc.
Social and Political Prevention
 Advantages: may have positive effects on other social and political
problems, not just terrorism
 Limitations and negative side effects:
 No single root cause of terrorism
 Many root causes are difficult to solve (e.g. protracted conflicts)
 Long and slow process
 Effects are difficult to measure
 Terrorism is frequently sustained by further reasons
US’ ‘War on Terrorism’
 September 11th, 2001=> most infamous incident of national terrorism in US
history
 The attack results in important legislative initiatives (G.W. Bush):
 2001 => The USA PATRIOT Act
 2002 => The Sarbanes-Oxley Act
 2002 => Homeland Security Act
 2004 => Terrorism Prevention Act
 The White House’ National Strategy for Combating Terrorism sets out key goals
 Obama’s National Strategy for Counterterrorism
 Focus on deterring Islamic-inspired terrorism
 The Uniting and Strengthening America
by Providing Appropriate Tools Required
to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act
of 2001, aka the USA PATRIOT act
 Legislation of the US congress, signed by
former President G.W Bush on October
26, 2001 (45 days after Sep 11)
The USA PATRIOT Act
 One of the longest pieces of emergency
legislation passed in one of the shortest
periods of time in American history =>
 10 Sections covering a variety of
areas (banking, surveillance, border
protection, victims’ support, information
sharing, strengthening of criminal laws
against terrorism, etc.)
The USA PATRIOT Act
The USA PATRIOT Act
 “Those who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary
safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety”
Banjamin Franklin
 Increased the ability of law enforcement
agencies to search telephone and e-mail
communications + medical, financial and
other records
 Expanded the Secretary of the Treasury’s
authority to regulate financial transactions,
particularly those involving foreign
individuals and entities
The USA PATRIOT Act
 Substantially expanded the authority of U.S. law enforcement agencies for
the stated purpose of fighting terrorism in the United States and abroad:
 Eased restrictions on foreign intelligence
gathering within the US
 Enhanced the discretion of law enforcement
+ immigration authorities in detaining and
deporting immigrants suspected of
terrorism-related acts
The USA PATRIOT Act
 Substantially expanded the authority of U.S. law enforcement agencies for
the stated purpose of fighting terrorism in the United States and abroad:
 Expanded the definition of terrorism to
include "domestic terrorism," thus enlarging
the number of activities to which the Patriot
Act’s expanded law enforcement powers
can be applied
 "domestic terrorism“ widen to include mass
destruction, assassination or kidnapping as
a terrorist activity or activities
The USA PATRIOT Act
 Substantially expanded the authority of U.S. law enforcement agencies for
the stated purpose of fighting terrorism in the United States and abroad:
 A number of measures were introduced in
an attempt to prevent and penalize
activities that are deemed to support
terrorism => harbor or conceal terrorists,
and those who do are subject to a fine or
imprisonment of up to 10 years, or both is
now a crime
The USA PATRIOT Act
 Substantially expanded the authority of U.S. law enforcement agencies for
the stated purpose of fighting terrorism in the United States and abroad:
Enhancing Domestic Security Against Terrorism
 Section 103: Increased funding for the Technical Support Center
 In addition to the established funding for section 811 of the Antiterrorism and
Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996
 $200 million each year for 2002-2004
 Section 105: Expansion of National Electronic Crime Task Force Initiative
 Director of US Secret Service shall create national task force on the New York
Electronic Crimes Task Force model
 Operate throughout the United States
 For the purpose of “preventing, detecting and investigating various forms of
electronic crimes.”
Enhanced Surveillance Procedures
 Sharing of Information
 Law enforcement with federal agencies
 Obtaining Records
 Rewording to Include Electronic Communications
 “routing,” “network addresses,” “signaling”
 Computer Trespass
 Deputizing owners and operators of IT
Electronic Communications Privacy Act (1986)
 Wiretapping Act for the Internet
 Protects:
 Ideally, privacy of communications in electronic media
 Pre-Patriot Act list of exceptions
 Usual course of business
 But not disclosure to third parties
 Wireless: distinction between listening and disclosing
 Authorized law enforcement
 Court or Administrative Order, Search Warrant or Subpoena, Executive
Order 12333 Letter
ECPA: To Whom Does It Apply?
 Statutory Language => “…providers of Internet service to the public”
 Does it apply to colleges and universities?
 No case law on point
 Anderson Consulting: EPCA does not apply
 Digital Millennium Copyright Act as potential “safe harbor” model of distinction between students
and staff/faculty?
 Areas where there is service to the public, i.e. list serves?
 General Rule => Act as if it does, but hold question as potential defense
 Patriot Act amendments of the ECPA =>
 New “emergency” disclosure: “Imminent danger to life and limb”
 New “required disclosure”
Worrying Issues
 Autonomy of higher education to maintain its networks
 The “router” and the FBI story
 Fine line between requesting and inquiry?
 Diminution of Fourth Amendment (unreasonable search and seizure)
 No “probable cause”
 No “judicial oversight”
 No “reasonable expectation of privacy” means no exclusionary rule in court
 Danger to individual rights and a threat to freedom of expression =>
 Distress signal at Grinnell
 Peace offense in New York
 Full exposure in Florida
Worrying Issues
 ‘USA PATRIOT Act gives the Attorney General and federal law enforcement
unnecessary and permanent new powers to violate civil liberties that go far
beyond the stated goal of fighting international terrorism’.
The American Civil Liberties Union’s (ACLU) wrote in their Oct.23, 2001 “Letter to the Senate Urging
Rejection on the Final Version of the USA PATRIOT Act”.
What Should Be Done?
 Fight crime and terrorism while enabling free speech and inquiry
 Sensitivity of sensible constitutional protections and due process in
internal policies and procedures
 Watch and react politically depending on how this legislation makes its
way into the daily life of American society (case law)
Global counter terrorist
”The Americans and their allies discredited the idea of the world counter
terrorist operation by starting the war in Iraq. The threat of global terrorism is
undoubtedly very high; it can destroy the modern civilization. However, the
traditional way of military intervention doesn’t work if we deal with
nongovernmental terrorist network. Economical, political, police measure should
be done by all the countries. Therefore, the UN can become more powerful
again and lead the war with terror”.
[The crisis of counter terrorist policy”, editorial article, “Expert”, 2003]
Psychological Effects of Terrorism
 Terror attacks of 9/11, and attacks in Africa, Russia, UK, Spain and the
Middle East, have alerted us to apparent new threats posed by terrorism
 Psychological theories available => theories of risk (e.g. Slovic), Terror
Management Theory (e.g. Greenberg), group influence
 Security values are particularly responsive to changes in the immediate
social context- Emphasise safety:
 Increase in security values amongst school children following Rabin’s murder
 Increases in security values in the US following Oklahoma terrorist bombing
and WTC attacks in New York
Terrorist incidents resulted in:
 Greater concern for family and personal safety
 Development of relatively strong ties following terrorist incidents
 Despite an expectation of value change following a major incident as shock
and stress wear off, the value pendulum returns to pre-attack levels
‘Adaptive’ behavioural changes that may follow an increased terror threat:
 Increased contact with families and friends
 Persisting fears of being a victim: fear of death and worries that interfere
with daily life
 Decrease over time
Psychological Effects of Terrorism
Next Session...
43
 Cyber Security in International Relations
44
Thank You For Your Attention!
Questions???