Ethics, Competence, and Professional
lssues in Cross-Cultural Counseling
Paul B. Pedersen
Primary Objective
• To demonstrate the generic relevance of multiculturalism to professional excellence in
counseling
Secondary Objectives
• To describe examples of culturally defined bias in counseling
• To define competencies of multicultural awareness
• To discuss the ethical dilemma facing multicultural counselors
• To explore how multiculturalism is becoming a "fourth force" in psychology
CULTURE CONTROLS OUR LIVES AND DEFINES REALITY FOR EACH OF US, WITH OR WITHOUT OUR
permission and/or intentional awareness. A"culture-centered"approach to counseling recognizes culture
as centra! and not marginal, fundamental and not exotic, for all appropriate counseling interventions.While
mental health problems are similar across cultures, the complex classification ofthe
appropriate helping responses across cultures has given rise to a global variety of counseling styles
that are complex and ever changing.The increase ofurbanized, modernized,and industrialized societies
and the corresponding breakdown of family and village support systems have heightened the
need for a global variety of counseling styles in the search for solutions to global social problems.
This chapter examines the ethical and professional foundations for culture-centered counseling.
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Al! behaviors are learned and displayed in a cultural context. Behaviors can be measured more
ac;curately, persona! identity becomes more clearly defined, the consequences of problems are better
understood, and counseling interviews become more meaningful in their cultural context. That cultura!
context is defined broadly to include ethnographic, demographic, status, and affiliation variables.
Culture-centered interventions depend on an inclusive definition of culture as well as a broad
definition of the counseling process. The search for models that tolerate the complexity of broadly
defined multicultural contexts and methods has become aprimaryemphasis in culture-centered counseling
and research. For a more comprehensive discussion of ethical research with ethnocultural
populations, see Trimble and Fisher (2006a).
EVIDENCE OF CULTURAL BIAS IN COUNSELING
The presence ofcultural bias in counseling psychology requires,first, that all research studies address
external validityissues for the populations beingresearched; second,that different research approaches
be matched as appropriate to each population; and, third,that the psychological implications ofapopulation's
ethnocultural beliefsystem be considered in making comparisons across cultures:"The lack
of interna! validity does not allow causa! inferences to be made without some degree of convincingness
or credibility. The lack of external validity may render findings meaningless with the actual
population ofinterest'' (S. Sue, 1999,p.1072). The greater the emphasis on interna! validity, the more
research will be dominated by a majority culture bias.
The Euro-American or Western psychological study of cultures assumed that there was a fixed
state ofmind,whose observation was obscuredby cultural distortions and that related culturalbehaviors
to some universa! definition of normative behavior described in counseling and psychological
textbooks. Acontrasting anthropological perspective assumed that cultural differences were clues to
divergent attitudes, values, or perspectives that differentiated one culture from another, based on a
culture-specific viewpoint.Anthropologists have tended to take a relativist position when classifying
and interpretingbehaviors across cultures(Geertz, 1973). Psychologists,bycontrast,have linked socia!
characteristics and psychological phenomenawith minimum attention to cultura! differences (Bernal,
Trimble, Burlew, & Leong, 2002). When counselors have applied the same interpretation to the same
behavior regardless ofthe cultural context,culturalbias has been the consequence.While there is clear
evidence of cultural bias in American psychology, much of it is unintentionally done by people who
see themselves as moral, just, and fair-minded professionals. Ridley (2005) points out that unintentional
racists maybe well intentioned,and theyarelikelyto denytheir racism.Toporek,Gerstein,Fouad,
Roysircar, and Israel (2006) provide an excellent discussion of the implications of cultural bias for
social justice issues.
Lewis-Fernandez and Kleinman (1994) have identified three culture-bound assumptions about
mental health and illness based on North American values. The first assumption is the egocentricity
of the self. The second assumption is the mind-body dualism, which divides psychopathology into
organic disorders and psychological problems.The third assumption isthe view ofculture as an arbitrary
superimposition on the otherwise"knowable biological reality:' Miller (1999) also !ooks at the
norm of self-interest as it has influenced the applications ofpsychology: "It is proposed that a norm
exists in Western cultures that specifies self-interest both is and ought to be a powerful determinant
ofbehavior. This norm influences people's actions and opinions as well as the accounts they give for
their actions and opinions" (p.1053).
Counseling and therapy have a history of protecting the status quo against change, at least as
perceived by minority cultures, through what has come to be called "scientific racism" (D. W. Sue &
BASIC ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING
Sue, 2003). Counseling psychology has been slow to respond to evidence of cultural bias. Sampson
(1993) suggests that psychology and counseling have at best accommodated add-on eclectic strategies
in response to culturally different movements and special interest groups without fundamentally
transforming conventional frameworks of understanding. Houser, Domokos-Cheng Ham,
Wilczenski, and Ham (2006) point out the shameless neglect of"ethics" as a professional discipline
ofstudy and afurther neglect ofethical decision making in non-Western cultures in the professional
literature on counseling and ethics. Fowers and Davidov (2006) link the "multicultural movement"
to classical writings about ethics in the philosophy literature, contrasting"virtue ethics"with merely
following the rules.
There are alternatives to conventional Western therapy. Moodley and West (2005) suggest how
alternative traditional healing practices can be integrated into counseling.Torrey (1986) cites numerous
examples where healing approaches have been mobilized by healers and through spirits. Sheikh
and Sheikh (1989) describe the breakdown ofthe Western"dualistic-materialistic paradigm"byaconceptual
revolution in which a non-Western holistic perspective is gaining importance. Specifically,
they maintain that"Western medicine has tended to look upon the body as asort ofmachine that can
be treated in total isolation from the mind, but even before the major paradigm shifts, it was becomingclear
that this mechanical approach was simply not working.This was especially apparent in areas
where psychosomatic linkages were showing that the mind does have a major impact upon bodily
functions" (p. v.).
Approximately one third of the people in the United States, half of those in Europe, and 80% of
people worldwide regularly use some kind of complementary or alternative health treatment, frequently
originating in non-Western cultures (Micozzi, 1996). There are many reasons why alternative
therapies have become more popular recently. Alternative therapies are typically less expensive,
insurance companies are increasingly recognizing them for third-party payments, reverse technology
transfer has become more popular, and the patient is more directly involved as a participant in
healing.Alternative therapies are also less invasive, more low-tech in their application,and more gende
and natural, and they rely on self-healing capabilities and value subjective relationship aspects of
the therapy process.
The psychological study of altered states of consciousness has been suppressed by a behavioral
bias against interna!,intangible,inaccessible mental states that do notlend themselves to experimental
research (Ward, 1989). However, in recent years, the medical model has been increasingly challenged
by psychosocial approaches. Walsh (1989) describes how Eastern and Western approaches actually
complement one another rather than competewith one another. By definingcounseling interventions
broadly according to their helping functions, we develop amore inclusive framework that reflects the
cultural diversity and complexity ofeach clienťs cultural context and thus avoid cultural encapsulation.
Zyphur (2006) provides a condensed explanation of how "race" and racism, having no biological
basis in scientific research, have continued to be such potent constructs in their political impact.
Wrenn (1962) first introduced the concept of cultural encapsulation. This perspective assumes
five basic identifying features. First, reality is defined according to one set of cultural assumptions.
Second, people become insensitive to cultural variations among individuals and assume their own
view is the only right one.Third, assumptions are not dependent on reasonable proofor rational consistency
but are believed true, regardless of evidence to the contrary. Fourth, solutions are sought in
technique-oriented strategies and quick or simple remedies. Fifth, everyone is judged from the viewpoint
of one's self-reference criteria without regard for the other person's separate cultural context.
There is evidence that the profession ofcounseling is even more encapsulated now than it was when
Wrenn wrote his original article (Albee, 1994; Wrenn, 1985).
ETHICS, COMPETENCE, AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN CROSS·CULTURAL COUNSELING 7
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More examples of cultural encapsulation are evident in the counseling literature wherever the
following assumptions are presumed to be true (Pedersen,2000). (1) All persons are measured according
to the same hypothetical "normal" standard of behavior, irrespective of their culturally different
contexts. (2) Individualism is presumed to be more appropriate in all settings than a collectivist perspective.
(3) Professional boundaries are narrowly defined, and interdisciplinary cooperation is discouraged.(4)
Psychological health is described prirnarilyin a"low-context"rather than a"high-context"
perspective. (S) Dependency is always considered to be an undesirable or even neurotic condition.
(6) The person'ssupport system is not normally considered relevant in analyzing the person'spsychological
health. (7) Only linear-based "cause-effect" thinking is accepted as scientific and appropriate.
(8) The individua! is expected to adjust to fit the system, even when the system is wrong. (9) The historical
roots of a person's background are disregarded or minirnalized. (10) The counselor presumes
herselforhimselfto be alreadyfree ofracism and cultural bias. Ponterotto,Utsey,and Pedersen (2006)
take on the enormous task of"preventing prejudice:'which transcends all cultural boundaries in our
society by combining all community resources in a coordinated effort, hoping to reduce our need for
encapsulation. This difficult but not irnpossible task can no longer be ignored.
Perhaps the most urgent example ofcultural encapsulation requiring our attention is the bias in
tests and measures used by counselors. Paniagua (2001) reviews the problems ofdiagnosis in a multicultural
context with particular emphasis on the accurate and appropriate use ofthe Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual oJ Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) with a series of case examples. The search for
culture-free or culture-fair tests has failed. Aculture-free or culture-fair test would need to demonstrate
content, semantic, technical, criterion, and conceptual equivalence across cultures.This does
not necessarily mean that those tests and measures cannot or should not be used.The skilled counselor
must be trained to interpret data from culturally biased tests in ways appropriate to the clienťs
cultural context (Paniagua, 2001) rather than throwing out tests.
DEFINING "MULTICULTURAL
AWARENESS" COMPETENCIES
The multicultural competences were derived from afailure ofprofessional ethical guidelines to maintain
highlevels ofprofessional activityin counseling.Delgado-Romero (2003) describes howthe issues
ofmulticultural competency incorporate both obligatorybehavior and aspirational goals for culturecentered
counseling. Much ofthe recent literature on multicultural competencies has focused on the
irnportance of awareness, knowledge, and skill. This three-stage developmental sequence of multicultural
competency begins first with "awareness" of culturally learned assumptions, second on
"knowledge" about culturally relevant facts, and third on "skill" for culturally appropriate interventions.
These competencies are based on work by D. W. Sue et al. (1982); D. W. Sue, Arredondo, and
McDavis (1992);Arredondo et al. (1996); Pope-Davis and Coleman (1997); and D.W. Sue et al. (1998).
Dunn, Smith, and Montoya (2006) provide an excellent review of how competencies are measured
with suggestions for future research.
Multicultural training programs that lack a balance of awareness, knowledge, and skill can fail
for three reasons. Some programs overemphasize"awareness"objectives almost exclusively, making
participants painfully aware of their own inadequacies or the inequities around them. Trainees who
overdose on awareness are frustrated because they do not know what to do with their new awareness
in the absence of knowledge and skill. Some programs overemphasize the exclusive importance of
factual knowledge and information through lectures, readings, and information.Without awareness,
BASIC ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING
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the trainee cannot see the relevance of that information or how the information could be used with
skill. Some programs overemphasize skill objectives without regard for the foundations ofawareness
and knowledge.These participants will never know ifthey are making things better orworse.All three
components of awareness, knowledge, and skill are required for a balanced perspective of competence.
The multicultural competencies enhance ethical thinking or "ethical reasoning" (Ford, 2006)
as an alternative to blind"rule following:'
Pedersen (2000) describes a framework for individuals or groups to increase their competence
through afour-step training program.The first step in developing multicultural competence is aneeds
assessment of awareness, knowledge, and skill. Assessing the Ieve! of awareness requires the ability
to accuratelyjudgeasituationboth from one'sown and the other's cultura! viewpoint. Becomingaware
ofthe assumptions being made about the other culture is agood example ofawareness. Ifawareness
helps the trainee ask right questions, then knowledge helps get the right answer to those questions.
Increased knowledge and information will clarify the alternatives and reduce the ambiguity ofa situation.
Learning the language of another culture is a good example of how increased knowledge is
important. Assessing the Ieve! of skill is the third stage of needs assessment. This involves measuring
what the trainee can already do. If awareness and knowledge are lacking, the trainee will have a
difficult time becoming skillful. If awareness is lacking, then wrong assumptions are likely, and if
knowledge is lacking, then proper understanding is at risk.
The second stage ofdeveloping multicultural competence is to identify specific objectives at the
awareness, knowledge, and skilllevels. An awareness objective changes the person's attitudes, opinions,
and persona! perspectives about a topic. The primary need may be to help a group discover its
own stereotypical attitudes and opinions. In identifying objectives for increasingknowledge,the focus
is on increasing the amount of accurate information available. The student can then test his or her
new assumptions against the reality of these facts and data so that increased knowledge will also
increase the student'sawareness. In identifying objectives for increasing skill, the focus is on abilities
indicating what the student can now do with the previously gathered awareness and knowledge. If
awareness has been neglected,the student may build his or her pian on wrong assumptions.Ifknowledge
has been neglected, the student may describe the culture inaccurately.
Techniques to stirnulate awareness might includeexperientialexercises such asrole plays,role reversals,
sirnulations, field trips, critical incidents,bilingual observation, field placements,question asking,
discussions, and other direct immersion experiences. Teaching awareness usually relies more on experiential
exercises that directly challenge the person's assumptions. Techniques to stirnulate increased
knowledge frequently rely on books, lectures, or classroom techniques. Guided seJf-study is apractical
approach, as is a panel discussion with members ofall cultures participating. Techniques to stimulate
increased skill frequently rely on modeling and demonstrations of a particular behavior or activity
(Pedersen, 2005). Supervision becomes especially irnportant in learning skills in the other culture.The
opportunityto practice new skills and behaviors willlead to increased multicultural competencies.The
laststep ofthe trainingsequence isto evaluatewhether the persons have met the stated objectives regarding
awareness, knowledge, and skill competencies. This may include "formative" evaluation regarding
the stated objectives in the short term, and it may include "summative"evaluation, which determines
where those stated objectives were appropriate in the long term. Evaluation methods range from informal
discussions in the hallway to self-assessment or supervisor assessments ofchanges.
Pope-Davis and Dings (1995) provide the best discussion ofthe research validating these multicultural
competencies. Four different measures have been developed to assess competencies of
multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skill. The Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory-Revised
ETHICS, COMPETENCE, AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING 9
1o
(CCCI-R), by LaFromboise, Coleman, and Hernandez (1991),directs asupervisor to rate the counselor
on 20 Likert scale items. The CCCI-R aims to measure knowledge more than awareness. The
MulticulturalAwareness-Knowledge-Skill Survey (D'Andrea, Daniels, & Heck, 1991) includes three
20-item scales to measure awareness,knowledge,and skills that are useful for evaluating students
in multicultural courses organized around the awareness, knowledge, and skill framework. The
Multicultural Counseling Awareness Scale-B, described by Ponterotto, Reiger, Barrett, and Sparks
(1994), includes two subscales: a 14-item awareness scale and a 28-item knowledge/skills scale,
with some evidence that the subscales measure different factors. The Multicultural Counseling
Inventory (MCI),by Sodowsky,Taffe,Gutkin,and Wise (1994),contains four factors: skills (ll items),
awareness (1Oitems), knowledge (ll items), and counseling relationship (8 items). The advantage
of the MCI is that it includes the relationship factor, and the items describe behaviors rather than
attitudes.The multicultural competencies depend on having aculture-centered theory as their foundation.
The ultimate multicultural theory is based on a contextual understanding of psychology.
As stated by Segall, Dasen, Berry, and Poortinga (1990);'There may well come a time when we will
no longer speak ofcross-cultural psychology as such.The basic premise ofthis field-that to understand
human behavior, we must study it in its socio-cultural context-may become so widely
accepted that all psychology will be inherently cultural" (p. 352).We have not, however, yet reached
that stage of development.
Aculture-centered perspective that developed from the awareness-knowledge-skill framework
was alist ofpropositions about"multicultural theory"(MCT) (D.WSue,Ivey, &Pedersen, 1996).These
six propositions demonstrate the fundamental importance of aculture-centered perspective:
1. Each Western or non-Western theory represents adifferent worldview.
2. The complex totalityofinterrelationships in the client-counselorexperiences and the dynamic changing
context must be the focus of counseling, however inconvenient that may become.
3. Acounselor's or clienťs racial!cultural identity will influence how problems are defined and dictate
or define appropriate counseling goals or processes.
4. The ultimate goal ofaculture-centered approach is to expand the repertoire ofhelping responses available
to counselors.
5. Conventional roles of counseling are only some ofthe many alternative helping roles available from a
variety of cultural contexts.
6. MCT emphasizes the importance of expanding persona!, family, group, and organizational consciousness
in acontextual orientation.
As these MCT propositions are tested in practice,theywill raise newquestions aboutethicalguidelines
that are more meaningful to multicultural contexts. Gielen (1994) provides examples of these
questions. Under what circumstances and in which culturally circumscribed situations does agiven
psychological theory or methodology provide valid explanations for the origin and maintenance of
behavior? What are the cultural boundary conditions potentially limiting the generalizability of
psychological theories and methodologies? Which psychological phenomena are culturally robust in
character, and which phenomena appear only under specified cultural conditions? Ethical guidelines
and professional competencies are linked together in the multicultural perspective,and occasionally,
the ethical and professional duties seem to be in conflict.
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THE ETHICAL Dl lEMMA OF A
MULTICULTURAL COUNSELOR
The ethical dilemma of multicultural counselors occurs when the counselor is forced to choose
between doing the right thing ethically and bending the professional ethical guidelines, on one hand,
or following the professional ethical guidelines and disregarding the clienťs cultural context, on the
other (Pedersen & Marsella, 1982).This dilemma has been highlighted in a trend toward ethical consciousness
in culture-centered counseling resulting from demographic changes favoring minority
groups, increased visibility of ethnic minorities, pressure by civil rights and human rights groups
worldwide, and the economic incentives to attract minority clients (Casas, 1984). Specific examples
ofdua! relationships, unintentional cultural bias,clientwelfare,barteringfor services,fostering dependencies,boundaries
ofcompetence,and other potential dilemmas involvingtheAmerican Counseling
Association (ACA), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Association of
Social Workers ethical codes are available in Pack-Brown and Williams (2003).All professional associations
face the same challenges. Codes ofethics for the 16largest counseling organizations are provided
byThomson Higher Education (2007) for comparison.TheWeb sites for all relevant professional
counseling guidelines are available in Ivey and Ivey (2003).
Ridley, Liddle, Hill, and Li (2001) explain how the dilemma results from oversimplification ofcomplexity
in the existing professional guidelines. The universa!"moral" issues are confused with the situational"ethical"rules,the
provider's ownethicalperspective is frequently unclear,and thedecision-making
process is typically confusing. They provide an ethical decision-making model based on stages and
process,providing clarity to the"goodness offit" among all parties in ethical decision making by contextualizinggeneral
ethical principles.The general ethical perspectives include absolutism,where the
decision is made according to absolute principles; relativism, where the decision is made according
to the conventional rules; consequentialism, where the decision is based on good or bad consequences;
and intentionalism, where the decision is made according to the good or bad intentions
ofthe doer.
Rather than focus on external force to impose ethical directives,Trimble and Fisher (2006b) focus
on interna! resources such as "trust" and "respect" as necessary conditions for a "goodness of fit"
between the interests ofproviders, consumers, and the community. The emphasis is not on virtuous
acts buton virtuous persons. Goodness is not just something we do but something we are."It is the
virtuous person that creates good acts, not good acts that add up to avirtuous person'' (Boeree, 1999,
p. 5). Trimble and Mohatt (2006) go on to describe prudence, integrity, respectfulness, benevolence,
trustworthiness, and reverence as our ethical guidelines.Without these inner resources as a foundation,
the enforcement ofethical behavior is likely to fail. This becomes a dilemma when the external
forces recommend an action different from virtue-driven inner resources, which may often happen
in a multicultural context. This perspective makes the task ofethical decision making especially difficult
in a multicultural context. Both parties may share a belief in the same virtues but disagree on
the appropriate behavior to express those virtues. In such a case, the beliefs and values need to be
understood separately from the culturally learned behaviors used to express those beliefs and values
in each particular cultural context. If two people share the same beliefs and values, there may be
common ground for discussion and mediation, even though their behaviors are very different.
Herlihy and Corey (1996) distinguish between mandatory ethics, which means functioning
according to minimum lega! standards, and aspirational ethics, which means to function at a higher
standard in accordance with the spiritbehind the litera! meaning ofthe code. In this way,fundamental
ETHICS, COMPETENCE, AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN CROSS·CULTURAL COUNSELING 1 1
12
values are identified while recognizing that different cultures may express those values through their
own different culturally learned behaviors. Jordan and Meara (1990) distinguished between principle
ethics-which focus on rational,objective,universa!,and impartial principles mandating actions
and choices-and virtue ethics, which focus on the counselor's motives, intentions, character, and
ethical consciousness that recognize the need to interpret principles differently in each cultural context.
Houser et al. (2006) present a hermeneutic framework to demonstrate the importance of contextual
issues in ethical decision making.Ford (2006) likewisebelieves that ethical issues in counseling
should be more grounded in the context of philosophical approaches to thinking about ethics as an
alternative to abstract, code-based legalistic discussions about ethical issues.
The danger ofany ethical code is that it might enforce the moral standards ofthe group in power
(Opotow, 1990).A fair and justcode ofethics needs to do more than reflect the culturalvalues ofthose
who wrote the code. Kitchner (1984) described four ofthe basic moral principles that provide afoundation
for the ethical code ofcounselors asautonomy,beneficence,nonmaleficence,andfairness. These
four principles are presumed to be universally valued regardless of the cultural context. Autonomy
refers to clienťs freedom for self-determination.Beneficence refers to actions that promote thegrowth
and development ofthe client. Nonmaleficence means refraining from hurting clients. Justice or fairness
refers to equal treatment ofall people.While all clients and counselors may believe in these four
psychological principles, this chapter takes the view that these general principles are defined differently
in each cultural context (Pedersen, 1995).
ToporekandWilliams (2006) examined ethics documents byprofessionalorganizations to explore
their potential to guide counselors toward socialjusticein their decisions and found aneed for clearer
guidance."For counseling psychology to truly demonstrate acommitment to positive social change,
ethical codes and guidelines should reflect the issues inherent in this work. Related professions,organizations
and specializations that have historically centralized social justice should be considered as
resources in the pursuit ofmore relevant guidelines" (p. 32).
Welfel (2006) identifies specificlimitations and oversimplifications in professional codes ofethics
and aspects of multicultural ethical decisions not yet addressed by those codes."Its centra! theme is
that ethics requires counselors to break free from cultural encapsulation and develop a set of competencies
and commitments for productive work with diverse populations"(p. 223). Defenders ofthe
APA ethical code assert that the problem is not with the principles butwith their interpretation. Ifthe
problem is not the principles but their appropriate application in practice, then this should be stated
in the standard on education and training. This pattern implies a "one-size-fits-all" perspective of
psychology in general and counseling in particular.
Corey,Corey,and Callanan (2007) point outthat all ofthe contemporarytherapeuticmodels need
to recognize the cultura! contexts in which behaviors are learned and displayed. Each therapy-and
each ethical code-will reflect the values of its cultural context. This statement seems to imply that
eachWestern-based code ofethics is based on apreference for individualism rather than collectivism
as the preferred worldview. Individualism applies to societies in which everyone is expected to look
after themselves, whereas collectivism applies to societies in which people are integrated into cohesive
groups and/or relationships that protect the members ofthe group in exchange for their loyalty.
Acomprehensive code ofethics needs to respect the values ofboth individualistic and collectivistic
cultural contexts. If that is not possible, the code of ethics at least needs to make its dependence on
individualisticvalues explicitfor thebenefit ofthose who do not sharethe assumption about the importance
ofthe individua! over the group. Corey et al.describe auseful test ofmulticultural effectiveness
in making ethical decisions. "When counselors are overly self-conscious about their ability to work
with diverse clientpopulations,they may becometoo analytical about what theysayanddo.Counselors
BASIC ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING
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::t-
ns
d
D-
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fe
,_
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who are afraid to face the differences between themselves and their clients, who refuse to accept the
reality ofthose differences, who perceive such differences as problematic, or who are uncomfortable
working out these differences are likely to fail"(p. 136).
Kendler (1993) described the dilemma facing the profession."Natural science psychology, to be
successful, must abandon two seductive myths: (1) Psychology is able to identify ethical principles
that should guide humankind and (2) the logical gap between is and ought can be bridged by empirical
evidence"(p. 1052). On the otherhand, psychologycan help identifythe culturallydifferent empirical
consequences of different policy choices and thereby help counselors make better-informed
decisions.
The tendency ofcontemporary professional ethical guidelines for counselors is to emphasize the
responsibility ofindividua! counselors for"following the rules"laid out in the ethical guidelines rather
than teach the counselor to "think ethically:' The differences between the cultural context in which
the APA and ACA ethical codes were developed and the multicultural contexts where they are being
applied create a serious discrepancy. This discrepancy has resulted in patterns of implicit cultural
bias that may require the counselor to chaose between being ethical, on one hand, or following the
codes, on the other.
MULTICULTURAUSM AS A "FOURTH FORCE"
The field ofcounselingpsychologyhas been amonocultural science,eventhough itwas born in Centra!
Europe and has spread throughout much ofboth theWestern and non-Westernworld (Pedersen, 1998).
There are contemporary global changes that are having increased influence in psychology, demonstrating
the positive consequence ofa culture-centered perspective. First, the ratio ofnon-American
to American psychological researchers is gradually but steadily increasing (Rosenzweig, 1992), suggesting
that psychology is growing faster outside than inside the United States. Second, all fields are
becoming more global in their focus as a result oftechnological innovations. Third, there is a multicultural
movement, particularlyin the social sciences,that has raised sensitivityto cultura! variables.
Fourth, the topic of cultural and multicultural issues is becoming more widely accepted in psychology.
Fifth, there is a reexamination ofcultural bias in psychology so that instead of assuming values
and beliefs,there is more emphasis on discovering each population's unique explanation oftheirbehavior
and meaning.
Psychology has been an"imported discipline"for most ofthe worlďs cultures that have adopted
and transferred Western psychology's theories and problems to a quite different cultural milieu.
Kagitcibasi (1996) points out the limitations for psychology as an imported discipline. She argues:
What is common in the ideographic, hermeneutic,emic, indigenous, relativist, cultural approaches
is an emphasis on the uniqueness ofconcepts in each culturalcontext,because theyderive their meanings
from these contexts. There is also a stress on the variability and the uniqueness of the individua!
case (person, culture, etc.) that requires its study from within and in its own right, defying
comparison.ln contrast,the nomothetic,positivist,etic, universalist,cross-cultural approaches study
the"typical"not the unique.The emphasis is on the underlying sirnilarities that render comparison
possible. (p. ll)
Abalanced perspective needs to consider both similarities and differences at the same time.
Wrightsman (1992) describes best the need to look outside the envelope for new approaches to
management of social problems. He points out that
ETHICS, COMPETENCE, AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING 13
14
we are living in atime when the conventional wisdom about human nature and the nature ofsociety
is under attack. Technology has run amok; many now question our ability to bring technology under
manageable control. Bureaucracy-a social structure originally established to provide for persona!
growth-now stifles human development and generates aphilosophythat human nature islazy,irresponsible
and extrinsically motivated. The communal movement has challenged a pessimistic drift
in aur society. Through study of the movemenťs assumptions, aims, procedures and outcomes, we
may gain an understanding ofthe future of philosophies ofhuman nature. (p. 293)
We are onlybeginning to understand the ways that psychology has been changed in the past two
decades (Mahoney & Patterson, 1992) in what has come to be called a paradigm shift. The underlyingassumptions
about psychology are moving from amonocultural to amulticulturalbasis with profound
consequences for counseling. The old rules ofpsychology focused on dissonance reduction by
providing simple explanations of human behavior. The new rules focus on the tolerance of ambiguity
and accept complexity as a necessary feature ofhuman behavior.
Smith, Harre, and Van Langenhove (1995) contrast the new with the old paradigms. The new
paradigms emphasize (1) understanding and describing a context more than just measuring variables,
(2) predicting consequences more than fmding causation, (3) social significance more than statistical
significance, (4) language and discourse more than numerical reductionism, (S) holistic
perspectives more than atomistic trivia, (6) complexinteracting particulars more than simplistic universals,
and (7) subjectively derived interpretations more than objectively imposed meanings.
The new rules accept greater complexity as necessary to psychological interpretations and provide a
flexible alternative more appropriate across cultures than the traditionally rigid perspective.
Transpersonal psychology (Tart, 1975) was the first branch ofpsychologyto claim a"fourth force"
status based on the spiritual revolution in modem society. Since that time, many ofthe principles of
transpersonal psychology have been subsumed into the larger and more diffuse multicultural movement.
Mahoney and Patterson (1992) describe the new paradigm as a"cognitive" revolution with an
interdisciplinaryperspective in which human behavior isdescribed as reciprocal and interactive rather
than linear and unidirectional. Wrightsman (1992) describes the new paradigm as beginning with
George Keily's persona! construct theory based on collectivistic and non-Western indigenous psychologies.
Smith et a!. (1995) describe the new perspective of psychology as advocating tolerance of
ambiguity rather than dissonance reduction, multidimensional reality rather than unidimensionalism,
the validity of subjective as well as objective proof, and the recognition of cultural bias by the
dominant culture in the applications ofpsychology (Rosenzweig, 1992).
Becauseaculture-centeredperspective is complicated,itmakes research,teaching,anddirectservice
more inconvenient, which has caused cultural differences to be overlooked or viewed negatively. The
monocultural perspective ofpsychology has served the purposes of a dominant culture in many specific
ways. Counseling in particular has often been guilty of protecting the status quo system against
change.With the increase in political activism,affirmative action,and articulate special interestgroups,
the cultural biases ofconventional psychology have been illuminated (D.WSue & Sue, 2003). This will
ultimatelyincrease the accurate,meaningful,and appropriate competence ofpsychologists,butthis will
only occur after the painful process ofreexamining our underlying culturally biased assumptions.
Thompson, Ellis, and Wildavsky (1990) described "cultural theory" as providing the basis of a
new perspective, dimension, or force in psychology and counseling. They argue that
social science is steeped in dualism: culture and structure, change and stability, dynamics and statics,
methodological individualism and collectivism, voluntarism and determinism, nature and
BASIC ISSUES IN CROSS·CULTURAL COUNSELING
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nurture, macro and micro, materialism and idealism, facts and values, objectivity and subjectivity,
rationality and irrationality, and so forth. Although sometimes useful as analytic distinctions, these
dualisms often have the unfortunate result of obscuring extensive interdependencies between phenomena.
Too often social scientists create needless controversies by seizing upon one side of adualism
and proclaiming it the more important. Cultural theory shows that there is no need to choose
between,for instance,collectivism,values and socia! relations or change and stability.Indeed,we argue
there is a need not to.(p. 21)
In discussing these sources of resistance, Stanley Sue (1998) pointed out the tendency to misrepresent
or misunderstand the notion ofmulticulturalism and the dangers ofthat misunderstanding.
Labels-such as multiculturalism-tend to oversimplify complicated relationships, and to that
extent,theyare dangerous. The sixth edition ofCounselingAcross Cultures has attempted to call attention
to the ways in which a multicultural perspective is better able to address the complicated and
dynamic cultural context in which psychologyis practiced than the alternative monocultural models.
Whether or not multiculturalism emerges as a fourth force in psychology and/or counseling psychologyat
aIeve! ofmagnitude equivalent to that ofpsychodynamic,behavioral,and humanistic theories
ofculture,itwill continue to provide avaluable metaphor for understanding ourselves and others.
It is no longer possible for psychologists to ignore their own cultural context or the cultural context
oftheir clients.
CONCLUSION
Until the multicultural perspective is understood as having positive consequences toward making
psychology more rather than less relevant and increasing rather than decreasing the quality of psychology,little
real change is likely to occur. This chapter demonstrates the importance ofculture centeredness
to professional issues of culture-centered counseling and the relationship of professional
competencies to ethical obligations. Pedersen (1997) summarizes more than a dozen positive
"up-side" advantages of making culture centra! to counseling as follows:
1. Recognizing that all behavior is learned and displayed in a cultura! context makes possible
accurate assessment, meaningful understanding, and appropriate interventions relative to that
cultural context. Interpreting behavior out of context is likely to result in misattribution.
2. People who express similar positive expectations or values through different culturally
learned behaviors share the "common ground" that allows them to disagree in their behaviors while
sharingthe same ultimate positive value. Not everyone who smiles at you is your friend, and not everyone
who shouts at you is your enemy.
3. By recognizing the thousands of"culture teachers" each of us has internalized from friends,
enemies, relatives, heroes, heroines, and fantasies, we can better understand the sources ofour identity.
As we encounter problems,we are likely to imagine how one or another culture teacher might respond.
4. Just as ahealthy ecosystem requires adiversity in the gene pool,so ahealthy society requires
a diversity of cultural perspectives for its psychological health. By considering many different perspectives
in problem solving, we are less likely to overlook the right answer.
ETHICS, COMPETENCE, AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN CROSS-CULTURAL COUNSELING 1s
16
5. Recognizing our natural tendency to encapsulate ourselves, cultural diversity protects us
from imposing our self-reference criteria inappropriately by challenging our assumption.We see the
dangers ofa one-size-fits-all psychological perspective.
6. Contact with differentcultures provides opportunities to rehearse adaptive functioning skills
that will help us survive in the diversified global village ofthe future. By learning to work with those
different from ourselves, we can develop the facility for our own survival.
7. Social justice and moral development require the contrasting cultural perspectives of
multiculturalism to prevent any one dominant group from holding the standards ofjustice hostage.
Every social system that has imposed the exclusive will ofthe dominant culture as the measure ofjust
and moral behavior has ended up being condemned by history.
8. Bylookingat both culturalsimilaritiesand differences at the same tirne,according to aquantum
metaphor, it becomes possible to identify nonlinear alternatives to rigidly absolutist thinking. It
is not just the content of our thinking but the very process ofthinking itselfthat can become culturally
encapsulated.
9. We are able to continue our learning curve to match the rapid social changes around us by
understanding all education as examples of culture shock. Education is a journey through many
different cultures.
10. Spiritual completeness requires that we complement our own understanding of Ultimate
Reality with the different understandings others have in order to increase our spiritual completeness.
All trails do indeed lead to the top ofthe mountain.
ll. The untried political alternative of cultural pluralism provides the only alternative to absolutism,
on one hand, and anarchy, on the other. Our survival in the future will depend on our ability
to work with culturally different people.
12. Aculture-centered perspective will strengthen the relevance and applicability of psychology
by more adequately reflecting the complex and dynamic reality in which we alllive. The multicultural
perspective resembles the fourth dimension of time as it complements our understanding
of three-dimensional space.
This chapter has reviewed the importance ofprofessional, ethical, and competency issues as the
foundation argument for taking a culture-centered perspective. The chapter further suggests that a
paradigm shift is occurring in counseling psychology toward giving more attention to multiculturalism.
Kuhn (1970) expressed the beliefthat amajor paradigm shift will occur when scientific theories
cannot adequatelyaccount for ideas,concepts,ordata and when some newcompetingperspective
better accommodates these data.
Counselinghas become apowerful force for psychological change through culture-centered counseling.
The primaryprofessional issue for counseling is rooted in the understanding of"self'Western
counseling and psychology have promoted the "separated" selfas the healthy prototype across cultures,
making counseling and psychology part of the problem through an emphasis on selfishness
and Jack of commitment to the group rather than part ofthe solution. Elements ofanalytical reductionism
in psychology and counseling seem to be moving toward amore holistic, culturally inclusive,
and integrative approach that recognizes how people from all populations are both similar and
different at the same time.
BASJC JSSUES IN CROSS·CULTURAL COUNSELING
i US
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·CRITICAL
INCIDENT
The Unintentional Violation
A well-known leader in the field of counselor education was accused by a student of violating her
rights and disregarding her cultural values. The studenťs complaint was sent to the ethics committee
of the professional counseling association for action.
The student complained that she was being required to self-disclose more of her personaI feelings
and activities in class than was comfortable for her. She feltthat she was being pressured by the teacher
and by her peers to talkabout herself in away she might only disclose to her own family under extreme
conditions. These things were just never discussed in her home culture. Moreover, she had not been
warned ahead of time that this embarrassing situation was likely to occur in her class. The class was
a required one for her, so withdrawing from the class would mean sacrificing all the time and money
she and her family had invested in her education.This was not an option for her. She had talked with
her teachers but did not feel her concerns were being taken seriously enough. Her only choice was to
file a formaI complaint with the ethics committee.
The teacher's position was that he had been teaching this required counseling class for many years
without any complaints from other students and that he was not requiring anything from her that he
did not require from these other students.The ethics guidelines required him to treat all students alike,
regardless of their ethnocultural background. He was sorry to hear that the class experiences had been
embarrassing to the student, but he did not feel he could give her any special privilege that he could
not give to any of the other students. Favoring this one student would not be fair to the other students
and would deprive this student of the opportunity to learn essential insights about counseling through
self-disclosure and feedback. He felt he had an ethical obligation to the complaining student and to all
his other students to maintain his standards of excellence. From the studenťs viewpoint, the cultural
differences between herselfand other students in her classes were important and needed to be respected.
The incident occurred in the ethics committee meeting, where the accused teacher was well known
and respected but the rights of the student were also respected.The ethical infraction was certainly not
intentional, and a certain degree of self-disclosure is required in counselor education classes. After considering
the rights and responsibilities of both the student and the teacher, the committee decided against
the teacher for not forewarning his students that a high degree of self-disclosure might be required in
this course. While self-disclosure would be easy and natural for students from some cultures, it would
be very painful for students from other cultures. The teacher was instructed to include a warning in his
syllabus for future courses indicating that a high degree of self·disclosure may be required.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. To what extent does the course syllabus function as a legal contract?
2. Should all students enrolled in counselor education classes be expected to accept the norms of the
majority culture?
3. Should the teacher modify his course to fit the needs of each and everyculture represented byall the
different students in his class?
4. Should the student be expected to bring her problem to the teacher directly, however embarrassing
that might be,before complaining to others?
5. What are the likely consequences for the student and for the teacher?
MASARYKOVA UNIV!:.kLJ,
Fakulta sociáiních studií
Joštova JO
60200 BRNO @
ETHICS, COMPETENCE , AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN CROSS -CULTURAL COUNSELING 17
18
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