Chapter 2: The Commodity as Spectacle
“The commodity can be understood in its undistorted essence only when it becomes
the universal category of society as a whole. Only in this context does the reification
produced by commodity relations assume decisive importance both for the objective
evolution of society and for the attitudes that people adopt toward it, as it subjugates
their consciousness to the forms in which this reification finds expression… As labor
is increasingly rationalized and mechanized, this subjugation is reinforced by the fact
that people’s activity becomes less and less active and more and more contemplative.”
Lukács, History and Class Consciousness
35
In the spectacle’s basic practice of incorporating into itself all the fluid aspects of human activity
so as to possess them in a congealed form, and of inverting living values into purely abstract
values, we recognize our old enemy the commodity, which seems at first glance so trivial and
obvious, yet which is actually so complex and full of metaphysical subtleties.
36
The fetishism of the commodity — the domination of society by “intangible as well as tangible
things” — attains its ultimate fulfillment in the spectacle, where the real world is replaced by a
selection of images which are projected above it, yet which at the same time succeed in making
themselves regarded as the epitome of reality.
37
The world at once present and absent that the spectacle holds up to view is the world of the
commodity dominating all living experience. The world of the commodity is thus shown for
what it is, because its development is identical to people’s estrangement from each other and
from everything they produce.
38
The loss of quality that is so evident at every level of spectacular language, from the objects
it glorifies to the behavior it regulates, stems from the basic nature of a production system that
shuns reality. The commodity form reduces everything to quantitative equivalence. The quantitative
is what it develops, and it can develop only within the quantitative.
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39
Despite the fact that this development excludes the qualitative, it is itself subject to qualitative
change. The spectacle reflects the fact that this development has crossed the threshold of its own
abundance. Although this qualitative change has as yet taken place only partially in a few local
areas, it is already implicit at the universal level that was the commodity’s original standard —
a standard that the commodity has lived up to by turning the whole planet into a single world
market.
40
The development of productive forces is the unconscious history that has actually created and
altered the living conditions of human groups — the conditions enabling them to survive and
the expansion of those conditions. It has been the economic basis of all human undertakings.
Within natural economies, the emergence of a commodity sector represented a surplus survival.
Commodity production, which implies the exchange of varied products between independent
producers, tended for a long time to retain its small-scale craft aspects, relegated as it was to a
marginal economic role where its quantitative reality was still hidden. But whenever it encountered
the social conditions of large-scale commerce and capital accumulation, it took total control
of the economy. The entire economy then became what the commodity had already shown itself
to be in the course of this conquest: a process of quantitative development. This constant expansion
of economic power in the form of commodities transformed human labor itself into a
commodity, into wage labor, and ultimately produced a level of abundance sufficient to solve
the initial problem of survival — but only in such a way that the same problem is continually
being regenerated at a higher level. Economic growth has liberated societies from the natural
pressures that forced them into an immediate struggle for survival; but they have not yet been
liberated from their liberator. The commodity’s independence has spread to the entire economy
it now dominates. This economy has transformed the world, but it has merely transformed it
into a world dominated by the economy. The pseudonature within which human labor has become
alienated demands that such labor remain forever in its service; and since this demand is
formulated by and answerable only to itself, it in fact ends up channeling all socially permitted
projects and endeavors into its own reinforcement. The abundance of commodities — that is, the
abundance of commodity relations — amounts to nothing more than an augmented survival.
41
As long as the economy’s role as material basis of social life was neither noticed nor understood
(remaining unknown precisely because it was so familiar), the commodity’s dominion over the
economy was exerted in a covert manner. In societies where actual commodities were few and
far between, money was the apparent master, serving as plenipotentiary representative of the
greater power that remained unknown. With the Industrial Revolution’s manufactural division
of labor and mass production for a global market, the commodity finally became fully visible as
a power that was colonizing all social life. It was at that point that political economy established
itself as the dominant science, and as the science of domination.
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42
The spectacle is the stage at which the commodity has succeeded in totally colonizing social
life. Commodification is not only visible, we no longer see anything else; the world we see is the
world of the commodity. Modern economic production extends its dictatorship both extensively
and intensively. In the less industrialized regions, its reign is already manifested by the presence
of a few star commodities and by the imperialist domination imposed by the more industrially advanced
regions. In the latter, social space is blanketed with ever-new layers of commodities. With
the “second industrial revolution,” alienated consumption has become just as much a duty for
the masses as alienated production. The society’s entire sold labor has become a total commodity
whose constant turnover must be maintained at all cost. To accomplish this, this total commodity
has to be returned in fragmented form to fragmented individuals who are completely cut off from
the overall operation of the productive forces. To this end the specialized science of domination
is broken down into further specialties such as sociology, applied psychology, cybernetics, and
semiology, which oversee the self-regulation of every phase of the process.
43
Whereas during the primitive stage of capitalist accumulation “political economy considers
the proletarian only as a worker,” who only needs to be allotted the indispensable minimum for
maintaining his labor power, and never considers him “in his leisure and humanity,” this rulingclass
perspective is revised as soon as commodity abundance reaches a level that requires an
additional collaboration from him. Once his workday is over, the worker is suddenly redeemed
from the total contempt toward him that is so clearly implied by every aspect of the organization
and surveillance of production, and finds himself seemingly treated like a grownup, with a great
show of politeness, in his new role as a consumer. At this point the humanism of the commodity
takes charge of the worker’s “leisure and humanity” simply because political economy now can
and must dominate those spheres as political economy. The “perfected denial of man” has thus
taken charge of all human existence.
44
The spectacle is a permanent opium war designed to force people to equate goods with commodities
and to equate satisfaction with a survival that expands according to its own laws. Consumable
survival must constantly expand because it never ceases to include privation. If augmented
survival never comes to a resolution, if there is no point where it might stop expanding,
this is because it is itself stuck in the realm of privation. It may gild poverty, but it cannot transcend
it.
45
Automation, which is both the most advanced sector of modern industry and the epitome of
its practice, obliges the commodity system to resolve the following contradiction: The technological
developments that objectively tend to eliminate work must at the same time preserve
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labor as a commodity, because labor is the only creator of commodities. The only way to prevent
automation (or any other less extreme method of increasing labor productivity) from reducing
society’s total necessary labor time is to create new jobs. To this end the reserve army of the
unemployed is enlisted into the tertiary or “service” sector, reinforcing the troops responsible
for distributing and glorifying the latest commodities; and in this it is serving a real need, in the
sense that increasingly extensive campaigns are necessary to convince people to buy increasingly
unnecessary commodities.
46
Exchange value could arise only as a representative of use value, but the victory it eventually
won with its own weapons created the conditions for its own autonomous power. By mobilizing
all human use value and monopolizing its fulfillment, exchange value ultimately succeeded in
controlling use. Usefulness has come to be seen purely in terms of exchange value, and is now
completely at its mercy. Starting out like a condottiere in the service of use value, exchange value
has ended up waging the war for its own sake.
47
The constant decline of use value that has always characterized the capitalist economy has
given rise to a new form of poverty within the realm of augmented survival — alongside the
old poverty which still persists, since the vast majority of people are still forced to take part as
wage workers in the unending pursuit of the system’s ends and each of them knows that he must
submit or die. The reality of this blackmail — the fact that even in its most impoverished forms
(food, shelter) use value now has no existence outside the illusory riches of augmented survival
— accounts for the general acceptance of the illusions of modern commodity consumption. The
real consumer has become a consumer of illusions. The commodity is this materialized illusion,
and the spectacle is its general expression.
48
Use value was formerly understood as an implicit aspect of exchange value. Now, however,
within the upside-down world of the spectacle, it must be explicitly proclaimed, both because its
actual reality has been eroded by the overdeveloped commodity economy and because it serves
as a necessary pseudo-justification for a counterfeit life.
49
The spectacle is the flip side of money. It, too, is an abstract general equivalent of all commodities.
But whereas money has dominated society as the representation of universal equivalence
— the exchangeability of different goods whose uses remain uncomparable — the spectacle is
the modern complement of money: a representation of the commodity world as a whole which
serves as a general equivalent for what the entire society can be and can do. The spectacle is
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money one can only look at, because in it all use has already been exchanged for the totality of
abstract representation. The spectacle is not just a servant of pseudo-use, it is already in itself a
pseudo-use of life.
50
With the achievement of economic abundance, the concentrated result of social labor becomes
visible, subjecting all reality to the appearances that are now that labor’s primary product. Capital
is no longer the invisible center governing the production process; as it accumulates, it spreads to
the ends of the earth in the form of tangible objects. The entire expanse of society is its portrait.
51
The economy’s triumph as an independent power at the same time spells its own doom, because
the forces it has unleashed have eliminated the economic necessity that was the unchanging
basis of earlier societies. Replacing that necessity with a necessity for boundless economic development
can only mean replacing the satisfaction of primary human needs (now scarcely met)
with an incessant fabrication of pseudoneeds, all of which ultimately come down to the single
pseudoneed of maintaining the reign of the autonomous economy. But that economy loses all connection
with authentic needs insofar as it emerges from the social unconscious that unknowingly
depended on it. “Whatever is conscious wears out. What is unconscious remains unalterable. But
once it is freed, it too falls to ruin” (Freud).
52
Once society discovers that it depends on the economy, the economy in fact depends on the
society. When the subterranean power of the economy grew to the point of visible domination,
it lost its power. The economic Id must be replaced by the I. This subject can only arise out of
society, that is, out of the struggle within society. Its existence depends on the outcome of the
class struggle that is both product and producer of the economic foundation of history.
53
Consciousness of desire and desire for consciousness are the same project, the project that in
its negative form seeks the abolition of classes and thus the workers’ direct possession of every
aspect of their activity. The opposite of this project is the society of the spectacle, where the
commodity contemplates itself in a world of its own making.
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