Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
Author Email: nst4@pitt.edu
Introduction to Special Issue: Global Socialisms and
Postsocialisms1
Narcis Tulbure, University of Pittsburgh
Everywhere there is something to overcome or to bridge: disorder, death, meaninglessness.
Everything is a transition, a bridge whose ends are lost in infinity, beside which all the bridges
of this earth are only children’s toys, pale symbols.
And all our hope lies on the other side.
Ivo Andrić (1992: 27)
Ordering a diversity of forms as a field of variation does not in itself induce any theory of
process, of possible mechanisms that generate this range of form – though it does cry out
for such theories. If not to comparative insights, where might an analyst turn for ideas?
Fredrik Barth (1999: 86)
Socialism and postsocialism
The 2009 Soyuz Symposium was dedicated to “Global Socialisms and Postsocialisms.”
The organizers intended to focus discussions on the orders, configurations, and processes
emerging from or among former socialist areas of the world in order to “understand the flow of
people, objects, concepts, and linguistic and cultural forms among and out of socialist and
postsocialist states, rather than simply into them from “the West.”2
While some of the
presentations and discussions drew on examples from outside Eastern Europe and the former
Soviet Union, most of the contributions stayed within the “traditional” focus area of Soyuz, the
Research Network for Postsocialist Studies. Participants in the Symposium encouraged us to
rethink socialism and postsocialism as global, international, or transnational formations, to
reconsider the continuities and contrasts between the two periods, as well as to imagine new
frameworks for comparative research. Most importantly, such an approach shifts analytic
attention from the socialist past and the transformations after socialism’s collapse to the
ideological constructs and knowledge practices emerging under socialism but continuing to
structure our contemporary worldviews and academic practices.
The theoretical turn suggested by this year’s theme appears more important when
realizing the boundedness of classical models of socialism made visible by the passing of time.
Based on fieldwork in the few areas open to ethnographic research in the Soviet bloc but
engaging some of the theoretical constructs of native scholars (Kornai 1980, 1992; Konrád and
Szelényi 1979; Câmpeanu 1980), theorizations of socialism incorporated the politics of
knowledge during the Cold War. Scholarship on the socialist societies of Eastern Europe and the
Soviet Union had been structured by the “Three Worlds” conceptualization of the globe after
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
3
1950: “the First World” (generically, “the West”) – dominated by science and utilitarian thinking,
was to be studied primarily by the theoretical social sciences (economics, political science,
sociology), “the Second World” (most of the totalitarian socialist states) – dominated by
ideology, was to be approached by area studies (such as Sovietology), while “the Third World”
(Africa and other parts of the underdeveloped world) – the world of culture, was left to the
idiographic and a-theoretical anthropology (Pletch 1981:578).
As the Cold War prompted a growing interest in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union,
American anthropology transgressed this academic division of work between the disciplines
concerned with the Third and the Second World. While the anthropology of East Europe
emerged as a quasi-autonomous subfield at the time,3
the tense international relations and the
influence of the Cold War – not only a political confrontation, but “also [a] form of knowledge
and a cognitive organization of the world” (Verdery 1996:4), meant that Western scholars doing
research in the area did not enjoy full freedom of movement or of choosing one’s object of study
(Verdery 2004). As Katherine Verdery points out, the Cold War influenced her (and others’)
choice of topics of research, of overall approach, or of the level of reality to be addressed. The
Cold War was responsible for the almost obsessive interest in the socialist state and the politicaleconomic
processes constituting it, as well as for the more superficial understanding of social
meanings, personal experiences, and values. This aspect was subsequently criticized and
remedied by more recent evaluations of postsocialist ethnographic experiences (Dudwick and
DeSoto 2000; Lampland 2000). At the same time, the constant engagement with politicaleconomic
categories facilitated not only a more theoretical understanding of the systemic traits
of socialism but also set the ground for further critiques of capitalism (Verdery 1996: 9)
conceptualized in relation (opposition) with the socialist system.
What theoretical models of socialism were not able to do was to set “actually existing
socialisms” in a more comparative perspective or to render the multiple relations between
socialism and postsocialism open to reflection. Although explaining quite profoundly the
workings of socialism in the Soviet bloc, anthropological theorizations based on ethnographic
research in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union are less helpful in explaining the
persistence of socialist societies such as Cuba, the cohabitation between political communism
and market economy in China, or the revitalization of socialist movements in Latin America.
Where such theories could still prove useful – something emphasized by several presenters at the
2009 Soyuz Symposium, is in showing how the former Cold War politics of knowledge are
resilient and continue to shape our perspectives on the world we live in.
The blooming of ethnographies of Eastern Europe after the collapse of state socialism
was due not only to the revitalization of the local anthropological schools4
but also to an
increased interest of Western anthropologists in the area. Many researchers conceived Eastern
Europe (and the former communist bloc more generally) as a “laboratory” (Kubálková 1992;
Kurti 1996, 2000) where epochal social and political changes associated with the “second great
transformation” (Burawoy 2000) could be studied closely.
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
4
Emerging as an analytic category soon after the end of socialism and used by many social
scientists as an alternative to the teleological notion of transition, postsocialism has been
transformed by the interaction between academic practice and fieldwork encounters, becoming
itself an ethnographic object.5
Used initially adjectivally (“postsocialist”) or to denote a
particular period of time, postsocialism later stood either for the diversity of social formations
emerging after socialism or for a particular style of doing ethnographic work. This ethnographic
style was more attentive to meanings, values and local experiences (focusing on themes like
memory, consumption, identity, nationalism, etc.) often in reaction to the political-economic
approaches that characterized previous scholarship on socialism. Thus, postsocialism
incorporated all the ambiguity inherent in processes of social change and made room for
approaches bringing “micro-level insights into particular processes of transformation” (Hann
2002:xii)
Socialism and the Cold War episteme continued to exert their influence over Eastern
European studies not only through the biographies of the senior anthropologists of the area, the
lasting institutional structures meant to support the study of “the Second World” in American
academia, or the (still) influential theoretical foundations laid before 1989. As it happened under
socialism (Kurti 1999), ethnographers and anthropologists of Eastern Europe had to negotiate
and continuously reflect on their relationships with informants and friends (Dudwick and De
Soto 2000; Herzfeld 2000; Lampland 2000). Indeed, the focus of ethnography was not so much
the nature of the state–subjects relations (Ries 2000) but mainly the understanding of
transformations taking place in the personal and social lives of Eastern Europeans and citizens of
the former Soviet Union (Herzfeld 2000:220). Under such circumstances, the ethics and
responsibilities of research came to the fore of ethnographers’ concerns (Dudwick and De Soto
2000:6; Herzfeld 2000:228, 231).
As anthropologists of former socialist societies seemed less inclined to understand
politics as a series of abstract and institutionalized processes and were more attentive to the
reconstitutions of moral orders or local understandings of politics (Lampland 2000:209-210), this
theoretical shift had multiple and profound implications for the ethnographic practices in the
region. In conceptual terms, the category of transition was deconstructed and replaced by the
more nuanced and non-teleological postsocialism (Ries 2000; Dudwick and De Soto 2000; Hann
2002; Lampland 2000). At the same time, as local understandings of broader political processes
became of primary concern for anthropologists, it also became important how ethnographers
managed a genuine dialogue with people rather than speaking for them (Ries 2000:x) and how
they shed light on the way people represent their own agency in shifting historical contexts (Ries
2000:x; Wolfe 2000:210). Such ethnographic concerns were premised, according to Michael
Herzfeld (2000), on the creation and maintenance of intimacy with one’s informants. This
implied not only a more prominent role of conversation as a privileged way of creating intimacy,
but also becoming aware of the multiple responsibilities of the ethnographer towards informants.
This was even more true in the case of local ethnographers (Herzfeld 2000:223). The topical
concerns of postsocialist ethnographers stimulated the reconfiguration of writing styles, textual
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
5
registers, and representational techniques employed by anthropologists, resulting in new genres
in the literature on Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union such as ethnographic reporting the
“article-length descriptions of social processes produced by analyzing a handful of sites or
episodes” (Wolfe 2000:207).
The emphasis on experience and the reconfiguration of values in the ethnographies of
postsocialism (Dudwick and De Soto 2000; Herzfeld 2000; Lampland 2000; Wolfe 2002;
Burawoy and Verdery 1998) or approaches developed in other social sciences (Roeder 1999:755;
Fish 1999) went in a totally opposite direction from earlier schematic representations of the fall
of the socialist system. Even the most theoretically focused ethnographers known for their
concern with political processes and/or working through political economic models progressively
oriented themselves towards constitutions of local life-worlds and the filtering of macro-political
processes through everyday life interactions and experiences (Burawoy and Verdery 1998;
Lampland 2000; Hann 2002; Hayden 2002b; Verdery 2002). The reflection on renewing research
agendas, appropriate levels of analysis and the positionality of ethnographers gave most of these
scholars the opportunity to re-conceptualize knowledge and politics, revealing the mutually
constitutive relations between the two categories (Verdery 2002; Wolfe 2000; Kurti 2000;
Lampland 2000).
Postsocialism and postcolonialism
The fragmentation of knowledge that postsocialism stood for has been reversed by the
recent search for more systematic approaches. Critics of the concept of postsocialism have
already argued that its usefulness in describing the current historical period has reached its limits
(Sampson 2002), that it was improperly used conveying a teleological direction of change
(Kenneth McGill in Chivens et al. 2005) or was never actually relevant for the entirety of Eastern
Europe (Andrew Gilbert in Chivens et al. 2005). They have also called for the approach of
postsocialism as an ethnographic category (Elizabeth Dunn in Chivens et al. 2005) being
experienced and narrated by the subjects of our ethnographies (Thomas Chivens in Chivens et al.
2005) and used in strategically different ways by Western scholars and Eastern subjects (Michal
Buchowski in Chivens et al. 2005).
The analysis of postsocialism in its global dimensions creates the premise for the
simultaneous analysis of the turn to autarchy (and nationalism) in many former socialist societies
and their subsequent conjunction with world-wide political and economic processes. Whereas
socialism was characterized by rational redistribution by the political center as the dominant (if
not unique) logic of power (Verdery 1996), the diverging pathways out of socialism cry out for
theoretical perspectives that would make the comparisons between them both possible and useful.
This comparative potential of postsocialism used as a historical category has been linked to two
research strategies. On the one hand, comparisons between the trajectories of various
postsocialist countries can facilitate the understanding of “the heritage of actually existing
socialism” (Humphrey 2002a:12), of the distinct ways people make sense of their socialist
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
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experiences, as well as of the diverse ideologies and political imaginaries emerging in these
regions (e.g. Europeanism, Eurasianism) and facilitating new projects of power and the control
over resources. On the other hand, a comparison with the postcolonial condition - an approach
progressively gaining currency in “post-Cold War studies” - creates the conditions for a more
nuanced and profound understanding of the “practices of domination” in various historical and
political regimes (Verdery 2002b:17). This can facilitate a rewarding inclusion of the
postsocialist paradigm into “comparative studies of imperialism and colonialism, postimperialism
or political anthropology more generally” (Humphrey 2002a:12).
The two types of comparisons outlined above should be seen as overlapping rather than
mutually exclusive. A thematic number of Africa dedicated to African socialisms and
postsocialisms, “[sought] theoretically to break the mould of Soviet-centrism that characterizes
much of the literature on postsocialism and to invite other scholars to include African countries
in comparative analysis” (Pitcher and Askew 2006:5). According to the two authors, the impact
of the collapse of socialism in 1989/1991 on African formerly socialist states was no less
profound than on their East European counterparts and the acknowledgement of that impact calls
for a more attentive exploration of the interconnections or parallels between postsocialisms on
the two continents. Furthermore, the fact that neoliberal ideologies and their institutional
promoters globally (the IMF, the World Bank, the IFC) were active agencies and shaped
postsocialist opportunities on both continents, further strengthens arguments for comparative
analysis and support claims that the socialist legacies are not the only defining features of the
postsocialist condition. Postsocialism, which first emerged as a complex category glossing over a
diversity of socio-political transformations and historical experiences - or as the symbol of a
specific mode of (re)integration into the global system - has recently mutated into a generous
theoretical category that creates numerous opportunities for comparison and calls for overcoming
academic and regional parochialism.
The comparison with various postcolonial contexts and the forms of knowledge emergent
there (such as postcolonial studies or subaltern history) is not accidental. The diminishing
explanatory power of earlier theoretical models and the reorientation of area studies more
generally (Guyer 2004) have stimulated anthropologists of Eastern Europe to look for alternative
conceptual developments or for models based on trans-regional comparisons. The postsocialism–
postcolonialism parallel has gone beyond the stage of an implicit comparison and has been
proposed as an explicit research strategy by numerous anthropologists and social scientists
(Lampland 2000; Verdery 2002b; Hayden 2002a, 2002b; Hann 2002; Chari and Verdery 2009).6
The similarities between postsocialist and postcolonial studies are multiple: importance of
history and historical anthropological approaches (Verdery 2002b; Hayden 2002a), pronounced
interdisciplinarity and the transgression of national boundaries by academic communities and
agendas (Verdery 2002b), and the preoccupation with giving “voice” to the natives and their
concerns (Verdery 2002b; Hayden 2002a:213). Ethnographers of Eastern Europe were further
encouraged to pursue such a comparative path in order to unmask the “practices of domination”
(Verdery 2002b; Lampland 2000; Chari and Verdery 2009), to understand representations of the
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7
West and the forms of knowledge supporting them (Tishkov 1998; Verdery 2002b), to approach
critically the politics of knowledge in contemporary Eastern Europe and the unbalanced systems
of knowledge production in East and West (Lampland 2000), or to understand better the
historicity of colonialism and the significance of postcolonial studies themselves (Hayden 2002a,
2002b).
Similarly, Katherine Verdery argued that postsocialism could be used to ground
comparative studies of historical routes out of empire (2002b:16). As postcolonial studies could
be viewed as part of the global order structured by the Cold War (Verdery 2002b:18; Chari and
Verdery 2009:21), the parallel between postsocialism and postcolonialism is not only possible
but necessary for understanding the practices of dominance around the world. The opening up of
postsocialist studies as a multi-disciplinary field of investigation and the awaited contribution of
“native” scholars from Eastern Europe are some of the other conditions necessary for the
consolidation of the field. At the same time, the integration of postsocialist and postcolonial
studies can illuminate the political constitution of “the West” itself. Such a comparison can
illustrate “how not just the colonies but the existence of socialism itself affected the constitution
and becoming of “the West,” often simultaneously with processes involving the colonies, postcolonies,
and neo-colonies” (Verdery 2002b:17). Furthermore, anthropologists were encouraged
to focus on postsocialist/postcolonial forms of knowledge and their contemporary
reconfiguration. The ongoing legacy of the Cold War on our knowledge practices cannot only
render comparable the various colonial practices of domination in the multiple “Souths” across
the globe, but also can reveal the various “Eastern,” socialist, and colonial representations of the
“West.” To those goals, historical anthropology is able to uncover the situated notions of history,
time, and space, and the multiple technologies producing the contemporary “varieties of
modernity” (Verdery 2002b:19).
Europeanization and colonialism
Focusing on different historical processes, yet in connection to some of the previous
arguments, the postcolonial turn in postsocialist studies sheds a different light on current projects
of re-integration or “return to” Europe undergone by many of the Eastern countries. Thus, Steven
Sampson’s argument about the “cultural boundary” between the West and the Balkans (2004),
Matti Bunzl’s “neo-colonial subjectification” of the Easterners through mundane embodied
practices of ordinary people (2000), or József Böröcz’s treatment of the “Eastern enlargement”
of the European Union (EU) in terms of “empire” and “colonialism” (2000; 2001) are good
examples of a new focus in anthropology. Europeanization had taken place in Eastern Europe
even before the accession within the EU, many times being a distinct process from that of EU
integration. From a different perspective, Europe itself (for which the EU often stands
metonymically) had been an ideological object long debated and longed for in “the East.”
Katherine Verdery argued that Europe had long been a “master symbol” of Romanian politics
(1991) while Susan Gal has shown how Europe functioned like a “symbolic counter of identity”
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
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in Hungary (1991). The emotional involvement with European categories is confirmed even by
quantitative analyses of political scientists (Linden and Pohlman 2003).
Local adaptations of and responses to EU-induced cultural-political processes are able to
expose the ideologically dominant constructions of Europe. Thus, Michael Herzfeld has argued
convincingly that the examination of the current European project can shed light on a second
type of colonialism, one whose subjects are regions and countries within Europe itself, “a more
insidious Western colonialism, one that is primarily engaged today in the international politics of
cultural distinction” (Asad et al.:714). Similarly, contributors to the roundtable on “Provocations
of European Ethnography” have argued that the study of processes of Europeanization taking
place in Eastern Europe can create the premises for a critique of Europe’s fundamental identity
categories and for a “culturally based critique of liberal capitalist democracy” (Katherine
Verdery in Asad et al. 1997:716). Furthermore, deconstructing categories such as “the West,”
“liberal democracy” or “capitalism” offers a good basis for “questioning the nature of socialism,
its representation, or its transformation” (Katherine Verdery in Asad et al. 1997:717).
The critical analysis of Europe and its strategies of power offers ethnographers the
opportunity for self-reflection on the practices of anthropology that are many times complicit
with colonial and national projects. As Michael Herzfeld put it, we can “take Europe as an object
of comparison with anthropology,” that is, “to use the highly accessible history of what is, after
all, a historically European-driven cultural activity to flush out some of the assumptions it shares
with nationalism and colonialism, both of which, if not quite as uniquely European as some
commentators have argued, are engaged in extremely self-conscious processes of classification
and control” (Asad et al.:715). Even with the development of an apparently new political
construct such as the European Union, if one is to get at its underlying cultural logic and not to
fall into the essentialist trap (similar to that of nation-building processes) then one should try to
put it into a comparative framework. Comparisons between various colonial projects, between
the multiple processes taking place in local arenas where the European project is realized,
between reactions to Europeanization at its margins, or between academic practices and their
objects of investigation promise to mediate a more distanced perspective and to facilitate
awareness of the essentializing representations of anthropology, nationalism, and colonialism.
The Cold War legacies
Premised on the assumption that we are still living the political and cognitive
consequences of the Cold War, most of the theoretically productive strategies outlined in the
sections above have been pursued by several of the presenters and were debated collectively
during the roundtable at the end of the 2009 Soyuz Symposium. Participants agreed that the
persistence of the cognitive frames elaborated under socialism on both sides of the Iron Curtain
has not yet been consistently analyzed and is still little understood. Coming to terms with such
Cold War legacies is becoming aware of the politics of knowledge involved by our scholarly
enterprises. This means not only replacing a dated Three Worlds ideology with a more integrated
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perspective on the world (Chari and Verdery 2009:19) but also understanding the perpetuation of
forms of knowledge and practice that we experience every day. Game theory, for instance, has
grown in the political context after WWII into one of the dominant paradigms of the social
sciences being used to model everything from macroeconomic theories to labor union
negotiations, and to explain things as diverse as international relations and audit practices in
academic institutions. Anthropologists and other social scientists sharing a similar worldview are
the ones called to understand the practical consequences of such modes of thinking that have
been routinized silently over the last decades into many realms of social life.
From a different perspective, the global ambitions of an anthropology claiming to
incorporate and explain postcolonial studies prompt legitimate questions about the agents of this
disciplinary transformation. Who are the ones promoting the postsocialist-postcolonial
comparison and how are they situated in between “Western” academia and “Eastern” areas of
study? How does this differ from the case of postcolonialism? How will anthropology itself be
transformed by the global engagement with the Cold War strategies of domination? The last
question promises to generate a particularly fruitful reflection. Whereas the birth of anthropology
was associated with colonial projects almost all over the world, the anthropology of socialism
was from the beginning a critical reflection on the constitution of power on both sides of the Iron
Curtain. The anthropology of global postsocialism(s) promises to recapture the stream of critical
anthropology engaging technologies of power that were generated, experimented with or
renewed in the former socialist regions of the world. This represents a rather important turn
towards theory and overarching political-economic processes that comes to recuperate the
general perspective neglected with the emphasis on localism in the early ethnographies of
postsocialism. Either postulating the existence of a world of global processes or claiming that the
overarching reality is a product of social imagination (but not less real for that matter) giving a
specific shape to localized interactions, the ethnography of global postsocialisms tries to come to
terms with the entanglements and relations making up worldwide processes.
The theoretical implications of this disciplinary shift of attention must be put under
scrutiny themselves: how are categories of anthropological investigation being produced? How
are they used and by whom? How do they travel and get adopted by other area specialists and the
“natives” of our ethnographies? As Elizabeth Dunn (Chivens et al. 2005) has anecdotally
described the “great chain of being in anthropology,” until recently, everything said about Papua
New Guinea used to apply everywhere, whereas anything said about Eastern Europe and China
used to apply only to those areas.7
The current turn in the anthropology of socialism and
postsocialism towards global processes and post-Cold War comparisons might be a good
moment to question such symbolic hierarchies of power within the discipline and to contribute
something substantial to the ongoing reinvention of anthropology.
The contributions to the special issue
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The articles gathered in this special issue speak to each other in numerous ways in spite
of the diversity of topics, methodologies and periods addressed, as well as the varied theoretical
concerns. The transgression of the (by now) narrow confines of the traditional focus of Soyuz
(postsocialist societies in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union) by the incorporation of
perspectives from sociology, history, and comparative literature, and the engagement of themes
pertaining to African and international socialist movements or to postcolonial contexts, are
several of the notable accomplishments of this year’s Symposium.
In the first article of the collection, Maxim Matusevich contextualizes the rise of racial
intolerance in post-Soviet Russia by making an excellent historical analysis of the changing
attitudes towards African students in the Soviet Union from the 1950-60s to the political
transformations during perestroika. Coming to universities in the USSR in increasing numbers
after the revival of socialist internationalism by Soviet leaders during the post-Stalin thaw,
students of African origin challenged the popular ideas about race through their cultural
representations and mundane practices. The initial enthusiasm towards African exoticism and
forms of artistic expression turned into anxiety and intolerance with the worsening economic
prospects and the competition for resources during the last years of the Soviet Union. Soviet
citizens’ cultural encounters with African students played into and illustrate well the support for
socialist internationalism during the early postcolonial period and the subsequent withdrawal
from Africa (as well as from other international engagements) of Soviet leaders before the
demise of socialism in the 1980-90s. Matusevich’s excellent analysis should be complemented
by comparative studies of the relations between other socialist strongholds (Eastern Europe,
contemporary China) and the postcolonial regions pursuing a socialist path.
Referring roughly to the same period, Rossen Djagalov’s contribution is an excellent
example of historically informed and theoretically minded analysis of the role of the Cold War in
structuring politics and knowledge both before and after 1989/1991. Working with the example
of Howard Fast, the American best-selling novelist who found himself a victim of McCarthy’s
anti-communist campaign, Djagalov reveals the ideological effects of the Iron Curtain both in the
United States and within the Soviet bloc. As for many other leftist scholars in the West, Howard
Fast’s actions and situatedness were constitutive of the operational principles of left wing literary
apparatuses that mediated (through selective translations and interpretation) the communication
between the two sides of the Curtain: canonization, excommunication, membrane effect, and
monopoly effect. The example of Howard Fast’s trajectory illustrates the fractures appearing in
the “world republic of leftist letters” in the second half of the last century as well as the
continuing legacy of the ideological perception of leftist culture in the West. During the Cold
War, the two ideological blocs produced not mirror images but rather partial knowledge and
distorted representations of each other. Djagalov’s effort helps us not only to understand the role
of Soviet cultural politics but also to reevaluate the complicity of Western scholarly and literary
establishments (such as the coalition of Slavic Studies and Eastern anti-communist dissidents) in
perpetuating distorted representations of each other.
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Moving westwards but staying focused on the regional processes constituting socialism
during the same period, Emanuela Grama adopts and adapts a research strategy with great results
in the fields of postcolonial and subaltern studies. Based on extensive archival research and
interviews with experts, Grama describes the disputes between architects and archaeologists
during the 1950-60s Romania over the modalities of uncovering, displaying, and preserving the
ruins of the medieval Old Court of Bucharest. She treats these disciplinary discourses as
competing technologies for the production of social reality as well as for the spatial and visual
realization of a teleological conception of history premised on the doctrine of dialectical
materialism. That is, “the past” and “the future” were separated and displayed through distinct
historical artifacts and architectural forms while “the present” was only a transitional phase
towards the socialist future. Although both disciplines were initially legitimated by regional
ideologies and political processes affecting most of the socialist bloc in Eastern Europe, they
were soon instrumentalized towards national goals. They provided the valuable means of and
entered the competition for the allocation of resources by the political center that had
characterized the socialist exercise of power in Eastern Europe. The preservation of the Old
Court ruins at the time has left the field of urban intervention open until today perpetuating some
of the disputes of the time that are reconsidered under postsocialism.
Focusing on the postsocialist period, Victor Shnirelman deftly renders visible the
flexibility and local adaptability of Eurasianism both as a discourse on identity and as a political
ideology. Postsocialism did not bring the demise of grand narratives in the former Soviet Union,
as some might imagine. The revival of Eurasianism facilitates the imagining of regional
identities and commonalities after socialist internationalism lost currency during the years of
perestroika. A highly polyphonic discourse, Eurasianism has been promoted during the last three
decades both by the Soviet leaders – trying to replace an eroding all-embracing ideology based
on class with one based on commonalities of culture and history, and by the leaders of the
succeeding republics - in power struggles within their own polities or the space of the former
Soviet Union. Eurasianism is currently adapted locally and used for the promotion of diverse
political and intellectual agendas: nationalist, regionalist, economic, or geopolitical. The varieties
of the Eurasianist discourse are constructed in opposition to each other and to what is seen as the
imperialist agenda behind Russian Eurasianism. While nationalists usually pursue radical
versions of the ideology, policy makers tend to favor moderate versions of it, liberal politicians
being the ones who articulate the most consistent criticisms of Eurasianism. Shnirelman’s article
raises challenging questions about the diversity of the postcolonial contexts and the refashioning
of colonial ideologies by national elites urging us to take advantage of the postsocialistpostcolonial
comparison.
Discussing about the same period of time, Ekaterina Melnikova untangles the process
of local identity creation in the region of Karelia, which was incorporated into the Soviet Union
after its wars with Finland during the 1940s. As the region experienced the quasi-replacement of
the population (through the forced migration of former Finnish inhabitants and the repopulation
with migrants from the neighboring Soviet Republics), local histories about the identity of the
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
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region and its former inhabitants were supplied by the frontier guards. They were based on
rumors about former Finnish-Karelian inhabitants returning at night to repossess their dwellings
that were feeding the anxieties of the new inhabitants of the region. Official histories, textbooks,
and schools offered no information about the past. With the demise of the Soviet Union, the
circulation across the Finnish-Karelian border of persons, objects, and memories stirs the
dilemmas of identity of both the current inhabitants and the returning Finns. Local and regional
identities are articulated around old artifacts attesting the Finnish presence before the war (old
buildings, gravestones, furniture, or magazines) and discourses of continuity and preservation. In
the process, new forms of co-ownership and relations with the past are forged as current
inhabitants consider themselves “keepers” of Finnish heritage while returning Finns engage in
“nostalgia tourism.”
Moving to another postsocialist context, Elana Resnik focuses on the practices through
which Bulgarian Roma associate with different transnational publics in order to position
themselves within Bulgarian society and the European Union. Shifting between associations with
India or with African American culture, Bulgarian Roma position themselves in alternating
public spheres: either one firmly situated within Bulgarian history or a postsocialist one with
global outreach. Such practices of association are mediated by the consumption of images of
global circulation around which transnational public spheres are created. Postsocialism can thus
be analyzed through the continuously produced transnational affiliations where contexts are
permanently transgressed and indexed in the formation of consuming publics. Key for the
ethnographer is not any of the specific images being consumed but rather following the process
itself through which marginal subjects reposition themselves within local histories. In the process,
the consumption of global images re-signifies and re-contextualizes the very histories in which
Roma try to position themselves in a meaningful way.
In an exemplary study, David Kideckel illustrates felicitously the virtues of genuine
comparisons between postcolonial and postsocialist political processes. Based on extensive
fieldwork and intimate knowledge of Romania and the Indian state of Kerala, Kideckel compares
the citizenship concepts and discourses in the two countries crafted in various forms of public
protests. Political activism manifest in “contentious performances” (Tilly 2004) (protests,
meetings, demonstrations, etc.) both create and reflect the distinct conceptions of citizenship in a
postcolonial and postsocialist milieu. While in Kerala public protests are more vibrant, rightsfocused,
system challenging and based on larger social coalitions, Romanian activism usually
takes the form of fragmented protests that are grievance-based, issue specific and directed more
towards temporary bargains than long-term political rights. Variations in the forms and aims of
activism are accounted for by both the recent histories of political protest in each of the countries
and by the different degrees of political inclusion within the global economy. What unites the
postcolonial and the postsocialist polities is that some of the main causes and audiences of the
public protests are located “off-shore from the state,” political activism being often directed
against expanding neoliberal processes.
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
13
Addressing Romania’s present incorporation into the global financial capitalism,
Narcis Tulbure focuses on the cultural mediation of the regulatory practices pertaining to mutual
funds. Adopted as technologies of value production and for the decentralized allocation of
investment capital within the economy after the end of socialism, mutual funds were at the center
of some of the most notorious financial scandals and political protests during the postsocialist
period. Their ambiguous functioning and widely mediated collapses raise challenging questions
not only about meanings of money and the social constitution of value, but also about the new
property arrangements emerging in the postsocialist era. Thus, the initial institutionalization of
mutual funds in Romania during the mid-1990s followed the American model characterized by
the collective ownership and mutual action of the investors participating in the venture. This
institutional form is currently being replaced with a pan-European model for mutual funds where
ownership and control are attributed to the asset management companies while investors are
turned into consumers of financial products. The uneasy changes in institutional forms and
regulatory practices are mediated by the ongoing disputes over the defaulted funds and by the
shifting conceptions of ownership, risk and values witnessed in Romania. The untangling of the
disputes over the regulations in Romania bring to light the tensions within some of the basic
categories of contemporary financial capitalism (too easily taken for granted in the West) and the
complications created by the transferability of institutional forms and norms across cultural
contexts.
The Soyuz Symposium this year ended with an instructive discussion about the future
of the organization and about the most challenging themes of research lying ahead. While many
of the arguments were either in favor of comparing various (post)socialist formations around the
world or of engaging the modalities of knowledge/power emerging during the Cold War that are
still shaping our scholarly practices, the response to these pressing questions remained only
tentative. What the presentations at the Symposium and the articles gathered in this special issue
leave us with is the awareness of the global and international dimension of both socialism and
postsocialism. This turn in perspective can help us recapture a more integrated theoretical
perspective on some of the most important historical processes of the twentieth century. Finally,
the diverse group of scholars and students present at the Symposium and publishing in this issue,
made up of people from the East and the West, traveling easily between regions of the world,
educational systems, and academic disciplines, are a good reason for optimism with regards to
both the continuation of the challenging debates initiated by Soyuz and the questioning of the
localism that seemed to characterize early postsocialist studies.
Notes
1
I would like to thank Sarah Phillips for the wonderful opportunity to guest edit this special
issue. My gratitude is also extended to Doug Rogers, Mike McGovern, Sean Brotherton, Erik
Harms, and Susanna Fioratta, the organizers of this year’s Soyuz Symposium. The quality of the
Anthropology of East Europe Review. 27(2): Fall 2009
14
presentations and discussions in New Haven has made the editing process a pleasant and
rewarding experience.
2
The quotation comes from the call for papers launched before the 2009 Soyuz Symposium. For
more details on the program of the symposium and a summary of all the presentations access:
http://www.uvm.edu/~soyuz/frameset.html.
3
Ethnology was subsisting in East European academia by pursuing essentially non-political
topics of research. Its loss of prestige in comparison with the American socio-cultural
anthropology is being decried by some of the scholars of the region even today (Michal
Buchowski in Chivens et al. 2005).
4
The papers gathered in the collective volume by Dorle Drackle, Iain R. Edgar and Thomas K.
Schippers (2003) make a useful presentation of the re-emerging anthropological schools in the
East European countries. The lack of transnational comparisons and the still underdeveloped
communication between the members of different national schools are their main weaknesses,
according to the editors.
5
An excellent discussion about the transformations in the meanings and uses of postsocialism
took place at a panel on “Non-Postsocialism: Socialism, Presentness, and the Naming of the
Past” organized by Thomas Chivens and Kenneth B McGill at the 2005 Annual Meetings of the
American Anthropological Association (Chivens et al. 2005).
6
For scholars of comparative politics, the parallel between the postsocialist transition and the
democratization processes happening earlier in Latin America has been a commonplace and,
occasionally, a reason for dispute after 1989. See Bunce (1995) and Karl and Schmitter (1995)
for an excellent scholarly exchange of arguments and criticism on this issue.
7
Quotation from memory of comments given by Elizabeth Dunn as a discussant at a panel
organized at the 2005 Annual Meetings of the American Anthropological Association (Chivens
et al. 2005).
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