ALLITERATION Example For example: “Wary Wayne and Judgey Julia.” Definition Alliteration is the repetition of the same sounds or of the same kinds of sounds at the beginning of words or in stressed syllables within a phrase. Generally this is used to make a sentence or phrase memorable, humorous or to create emphasis. Effect on reader Because of the altered rhythm of the sentence from the repeated sound, alliteration changes the way a reader may read a sentence, and in this way, the writer may draw attention to a previously overlooked part of the article or discussion point. In the above example, alliteration is also being used to create a light-hearted, mocking tone which is directed towards the people discussed. ANECDOTE Example For example: “Annie was only 5 when her father walked out on the family.” Definition and effect on reader An anecdote is essentially a story; a recount of something that has happened. Writers can use anecdotes for a range of reasons, one of the most common being to give a human face to an otherwise impersonal issue. For example, presenting statistics on how many people die of cancer annually can be logically persuasive, but telling a specific story about a woman who was afflicted with the disease can be emotionally persuasive. Anecdotes can also be used to demonstrate a real-world application of a scenario the writer is presenting. By showing how an issue affects individuals, writers are able to portray the relevance, and therefore importance, of their contention. This technique is often used in conjunction with emotive language and other emotional appeals. ALLUSIONS TO TIME Also referred to as creating a sense of urgency or appeal to sense of urgency. Example For example: “Your donations are needed today if we are going to save the Great Barrier Reef from imminent destruction!” Definition and effect on reader Allusions to time are words or phrases that convey the urgency of a certain event taking place. They encourage the reader to prioritise that issue over other issues, because this one requires immediate action or attention as opposed to those that can be handled in the future. As writers of persuasive pieces do not want their contentions or aims to be placed aside for later, making their issue seem as though it must be dealt with immediately is a generally effective idea. There are several ways a writer may attempt to create a sense of urgency: * Using words like “now” or “today.” * Call and book your blood donation today! Using exclamation marks. * In the above example, the exclamation mark adds emphasis to “today” Giving a specific time frame. * We need to collect $100,000 dollars by the end of the month or the community centre will be shut down forever. Alluding to the issue being ongoing. * Children are dying every day. CALL TO ACTION Example “Your help is needed urgently to save the community centre.“ Definition A call to action is a request or demand for the reader to further engage with, or take action on, the issue discussed. It may be a request for a donation, signature on a petition, suggestion to join a group or protest, or some other action. These commonly appear at the end of pieces and work in conjunction with a writer’s aim. Effect on reader A call to action can be a direct attempt by the writer to make the reader fulfil their own aim. In altering their behaviour to suit the call to action, the reader is in turn empowered to create the change that the writer has been advocating for. The reader may feel further engaged in the piece if they are taking an active role rather than passively absorbing the writer’s opinion. COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE Also referred to as informal language, slang or vernacular. Example For example: I love my staffy as much as the next bloke, but all this talk about “cruel” puppy mills just makes me roll my eyes. Definition Colloquial language is informal language that is not necessarily rude, but would not be used in a formal situation. Its use creates a casual tone– in the example above the use of Australian vernacular (“bloke”) makes the sentence appear like a spoken conversation with the writer rather than a formal piece of writing. This sense of casualness can alter the tone and potentially create a sense of connection with the writer for the reader. In Language Analysis writing, colloquial language is often slang or word shortenings specific to Australia. Words and phrases such as “g’day” and “she’ll be right” instantly connect the issue that’s being written about with Australia, or at least with an Australian audience. Effect on reader When appropriately used, colloquial language can be useful in creating a bond between reader and writer that makes it easier for the reader to agree with the writer’s point of view, but can come across as out of place with a serious issue. This is one of many techniques that re-positions the writer. In this case, the writer is using a particular style of writing in order to bring themselves down to the same level as the reader- similar to using humour. EMOTIVE LANGUAGE Example This shameful tragedy will haunt the community for years to come. Definition and effect on reader Emotive language refers to words or phrases that change the feel of a sentence through evoking a particular emotional reaction from the reader. In particular, adjectives can alter how a sentence is read so that the idea comes across more positively or negatively than it would have without that descriptive word. This decreases the reader’s rational response to the writing and increases their emotional response; encouraging them to react instinctively to what is being said. It is important to identify what emotion is being evoked as there are a broad spectrum that emotive language can be appealing to. Emotive language is a very common language technique, not only because it is persuasive, but because it naturally occurs in everyday speech. Keep in mind that some word choices evoke an emotional response, but are not so much emotive language as loaded language. This means that the word itself holds connotations, and may not be a describing word used to elicit an emotional response. Keep in mind that emotive language is often used in conjunction with appeals (such as an appeal to sympathy). EUPHEMISMS Example Using the phrase passed away instead of died, or correctional facility instead of jail. Definition and effect on reader Euphemisms are polite or softening phrases used in replacement of words that might seem harsh or unpleasant to hear. They replace the plain English phrase to make the idea more palatable or friendly. In this way, they can be used my writers to make an idea seem kinder than it actually is, for example suggesting that a drug has “negative patient outcomes” instead of severe health complications. GRAPHS Effect on reader Presenting information through a graph can be an effective way to communicate data and demonstrate writer credibility when used appropriately. Simple graphs can provide readers with a clear sense of a trend or issue that rationally persuades them of the writer’s point of view. Furthermore, if the same information relayed in the graph is also discussed throughout the piece, it is reinforced to the reader by being presented in two different formats. This may make that information more easily accessible and memorable for the reader. LISTING Example “Riding your bike to work has many benefits for the individual and the community: it reduces traffic, improves your health and protects the environment.” Effect on reader Listing as a technique is exactly what the name implies: a list, generally of the benefits or detriments of a particular decision or event. By giving a list, the writer is providing multiple arguments to sway the reader, and furthermore, targeting multiple readers at once in case one particular argument or idea is not persuasive to a particular person. In this way, a list can overwhelm a reader with the many arguments on the side of the writer. COMPARISON Simile Example “Using wind power to solve global warming is like putting a Band-Aid on a broken arm and expecting it to heal.” Definition and effect on reader A simile is a technique that uses a comparison to create meaning. The words “like” or “as…as” often signify similes. This comparison is effective in giving the reader a sense of what something is like, even if it is foreign to them. In the above example, the reader’s knowledge that putting a Band-Aid on a broken arm would be an ineffective cure enables them to understand the reader’s suggestion that wind power is an ineffective solution to the crisis of global warming. In this example, the simile can also be described as hyperbolic. Analogy Example For example: “illegally downloading movies is like walking into a video store and stealing the disks from their DVD cases.” Definition and effect on reader Like a simile, an analogy often offers a comparison which creates meaning for the reader. They are often used to explain an idea in a simpler way or to demonstrate the writer’s use of logic. In the above example, the writer is using the analogy to draw a comparison between an action that the reader may engage in, and an action that they would recognise as stealing. In turn, this allows the writer to demonstrate the logic in their argument that people should not illegally download as their analogy has made the reader acknowledge the similarities between physical stealing and electronic stealing. Juxtaposition Example “Self-indulgent, cocky commentators pick on the most innocent players” Definition Juxtaposition is the positioning of two opposite ideas directly against one another to highlight the differences between them and make the comparison seem more extreme. In the example given, by talking about the “innocent players” in the same sentence as the “self-indulgent, cocky commentators”, the writer shows that the commentators are all the worse for picking on well-behaved players, rather than just on any player. This technique is often used to place blame on one group while highlighting the innocence of another. REPETITION Example “It hurts the individual, it hurts the community and it hurts the country as a whole.” Definition Repetition does not refer strictly to words that are repeated in a single sentence or even throughout an entire piece; it can also refer to the repetition of phrases or ideas. Effect on reader Generally repetition creates emphasis and is memorable for the reader. When a writer is focused on communicating a particular message or idea, returning to a particular phrase over and over again helps to keep it fresh in the reader’s mind throughout the piece. In the above example the repetition of “hurts” is used to emphasise the negativity of the action that is causing such widespread harm. RHETORICAL QUESTION Example “Do we really want our road tolls to continue rising like this?” Definition Rhetorical questions are statements with question marks that give the illusion of asking something when really the answer is implied by what is being said. They are often used to create a scoffing or incredulous tone. Effect on reader This tone, along with the insinuated obviousness of the answer (in the example above, the answer is obviously “no”), makes any other answer or opposition to the writer’s point of view seem ridiculous. This can be persuasive as it makes the reader view an alternative answer to the issue at hand appear illogical or against common sense. Words like “really” and “honestly” are often indications that a question is not genuine, but rhetorical. SHORT SHARP SENTENCE Example “When the factories close down, when the workers go back home to their families without a payslip in their pockets, when the price of living goes up and the quality of life goes down, where will the Government be to help? Nowhere. Just like always.” Definition and effect on reader The English language, and therefore Language Analysis pieces, contain a mixture of long and short sentences. Sometimes, particularly short sentences can be used by the writer to draw emphasis to what is being said because of the change in rhythm that they create. In the above example, this change in rhythm can be seen in how a reader would pause on the punctuation of the last two sentences. This results in the focus of the text as a whole being drawn to the consistent failure of the Government. SIGNPOSTING Example “The three main arguments for vegetarianism are the human health benefits, environmental sustainability, and moral standards in relation to how we treat animals.” Definition Signposting is a way that a writer or speaker outlines their arguments. It acts almost as a map for the reader or listener; indicating where a piece is intending to go. This can make the style of a piece appear more logical and assist the reader in following the line of argumentation. It should be noted that the above example also constitutes listing in that it is persuasive by providing more than one argument for the reader to adopt. QUOTES Example “The Minister for Tertiary Education was earlier quoted saying “investment in our universities and TAFEs should be in the top three current national priorities”. ” Effect on reader Quotes and references to authorities are often used in conjunction with statistics, because they have the same overall effects. We are naturally inclined to listen to the advice or opinion expressed by an expert, like accepting medical advice from a doctor or legal advice from a lawyer. The source of the quote is particularly important though, as a reader is less likely to be persuaded by a quote when the speaker is not an expert or has a vested interest in the issue. METAPHOR Example “The typical teenage boy’s bedroom is a disaster zone.” Definition and effect on reader A metaphor is a comparison that describes one thing in terms of another but does not use “like” or “as” in the way that similes do. In the above example, the writer is not literally suggesting that teenage boys’ bedrooms are disaster zones: it’s a metaphorical representation of how messy they are. This technique can be used to reinforce a point without repetition and the imagery created can often really stick in a reader’s head. On top of that, metaphors are often very witty and can add humour and colour to a piece. INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE Example We all have to pitch in to help our brothers in Queensland recover from this horrific tragedy. Effect on reader Terms such as ‘our’, ‘us’, and ‘we’ are often used to make the reader feel like part of a group or inspired to take collective action. This can be empowering for the reader, as they are not left as a bystander with no stake in the issue, and are therefore encouraged to take action. In addition to feeling encouraged through inclusion in the group, they may be given a sense of responsibility. Being made part of a group may allow the reader to feel that they are being held responsible to the recommended action or belief of the writer. It is important to note that the use of words like ‘our’, ‘us’ and ‘we’ is not always inclusive, as they can be used to refer to a group to which the reader does not belong. For example, the RSPCA slogan “help us stop animal cruelty” is not inclusive as the ‘us’ refers to the organisation rather than collaborative action with the reader.