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economically more efficient and also more humane form of society that would lead, through changing demand conditions, to a steadily increasing number of men and women, of all social origins, being able to move into class positions in which they could enjoy economic well-being, security and stability and the prospect of advancement over the course of their working lives.
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Index
ability, social origins and, 108-22
absolute mobility rates, 5, 12
class structure and, 34-5, 67, 211 cross-national comparisons, 192-9 defined, 34-5
educational policy and, 90-1
forecasting of, 51
low mobility assumptions and,
188-206 in OED triangle, 94-6 politics and, 45-6 stability of, 85-9 strategies for managing, 222-4 academic-vocational distinction,
lifelong learning and, 169-76 administrative employees, class distribution and, 35-7
age
direct effect of social origins and,
153-7 fluidity and, 65n.8 income security and, 27-8 lifelong learning and, 169-76 mobility prospects and, 48-9 mortality rates and, 31-2 occupational differences in earnings
and, 28n.l4 social mobility research and, 10-11 total mobility rates and, 39-41 All-Party Parliamentary Group on
Social Mobility, 4n.5 Atkinson, A. B., 216-17n.6 attributional inequality, 13-15
birth cohort studies, 6-7 class trajectories in, 129-35 cognitive ability, parental status and
educational attainment, 108-22 direct effect of social origins and, 153-7
downward mobility risk and, 43 educational expansion effects and,
102n.8 fluidity and, 65n.8 income data in, 16n.4 limitations of, 8n.l0 parental status in, 114-19 qualification levels after labour
market entry and, 157-63 relative rates of mobility in, 43-4, 68,
96-100
social fluidity patterns in, 77-83
social origins in, 114-19
total mobility rates and, 39-41 Blair, Tony, 2n.3, 3-4, 104-6 blue-collar workers
class trajectories for, 131-3
contraction of, 43
income security for, 24-31
status affinity effects and, 74—7 British Household Panel Study, 186H.12
Brown, Gordon, 3-4, 48-9, 211-14 Butler Act of 1944, 101-3
Cameron, David, 3—4
class maintenance, lifelong learning
and, 169-76 class structure
absolute mobility and, 34-5 attributional and relational inequality
and, 13-15 cognitive ability and, 114-19 conceptualisation of, 16-17 direct effect of social origins and, 153-7
earnings components and, 29-30 educational attainment and, 11,
128-9, 208 employment contracts and, 17-19
idex
hierarchy effects and, 72^4 income mobility and, 15 income security and, 24—31 inheritance effects and, 72-4 intergenerational changes in, 52-4 life-chances and, 31-2 lifelong learning and, 169-76 NS-SEC data on, 35-7 occupational categories and, 19-24 origins and destinations in, 92-3 parental status and, 111-15 part-time work and, 61-3 relative rates of mobility and, 52-4, 208
research on, 32-3 resistance to change in, 67, 85-9, 101-3
social mobility and, 11, 13-15, 47-8 trajectories in, 129-35, 146-51 wealth and, 30-1 worklife mobility and, 146-51 Clegg, Nick, 3-4
cluster analysis, class trajectories, 133-5
cognitive ability
in birth cohort studies, 114-19 class trajectories and, 129-35, 142-6 direct effect of social origins and, 159-63
educational attainment and, 109-10 parental status and, 110-11 talent wastage and, 219-20 commodification of labour, class
structure and, 18 'commodification of opportunity', 104, 221-2
compositional effect, OED triangle, 93n.3
'concerted cultivation' parenting model, 126-7
Conservative administrations, social
mobility policies under, 3-4, 4n.5 Conservative-Liberal Democrat
coalition, social mobility policies under, 3-4 constant association (CA) model class structural change and, 67 cross-national social mobility
comparisons, 199-204 OED triangle and, 98-106 relative rates of mobility and, 57-8
241
consumption good, education as, 94-6,
111-15 countermobility, educational
attainment and, 183-7 credentialism, 150, 220-1 credentials inflation in education, 94 cross-national social mobility comparisons, 8, 12 absolute mobility rates, 192-9 low mobility assumptions and,
188-206, 210 OED triangle and, 93n.3 relative mobility rates, 199-204 survey design for, 192-9 cross-sectional surveys, 6-7 class structure and, 37^10 Cummings, Dominic, 124n.12
'decline of the social', 122-3 Department of Business, Innovation,
and Skills Research, 186-7 direct effect of social origins (DESO) cognitive ability and, 159-63 educational inequality and, 153-7 family structure and, 159-63 intergenerational succession and, 163-8
locus of control and, 159-63 mediation of, 157-63 opportunity hoarding and, 166-8
parental help and, 163-8 qualification levels after labour
market entry and, 157-63 stability of, 152-3 downward mobility age, 39^11 British trends in, 199 case studies of, 44 cross-national comparisons of,
192-9 current trends in, 207 education and, 146-51 gender differences in, 41-2 increase in, 47-8 lifelong learning and, 169-83 part-time work and, 61—4 relative mobility rates and, 68-70 social and psychological costs of,
32-3
242
Index
Index
243
earnings
economic and social inequality and, 29-30
educational levels and, 103n.9 income inequality and, 26-7 intergenerational elasticity in,
189-90n.3, 190n.4, 190n.3 lifelong learning and change in,
177n.7
economic and social inequality absence of change in, 85-9, 101-3 class distributions and, 35-7, 67-8 'commodification of opportunity'
and, 221-2 direct effect of social origins and,
153-7 earnings and, 29-30 educational attainment and, 123-7 growth of, 2
OE (origin/education) association
and, 108-22 parental income and educational
attainment and, 114n.6 persistence of, 222-4 ED (education/social destination)
association absolute mobility measurement,
100-1
credentials inflation and, 94 cross-national comparisons using, 204-6
educational policy and, 152-3 employers and, 103 knowledge economy and, 128-9 OED triangle and, 96-100 statistical models and, 98-106 educational attainment. See also
academic-vocational distinction absolute mobility and, 90-1 class mobility and, 11, 128-9 class trajectories and, 129-42,
146-51 cognitive ability and, 108-22 compensatory programs for
inequalities in, 222n. 1 1 countermobihty and, 183-7 credentials inflation and, 94 direct effect of social origins and
inequalities in, 153-7 elite access and, 87-8n.12
equality linked to, 68, 208 gender differences in, 114—19 government policies concerning, 3-4
211-14 lifelong learning and, 169-76 limitations of, for social mobility, 5,
51, 106-7 parental status and, 111-15 politics and government policy and,
104-6, 123-7 qualification levels after labour
market entry and gains in, 157-63 relative mobility rates and, 68,
96-100
social destinations and levels of, 8 social mobility and, 3 social origins and, 12, 108-22, 209 supply-side assumptions and, 48-9 upward mobility in absence of, 49-51 worklife mobility and, 146-51
Educational Maintenance Allowances, ending of, 107n.l3
elites
inequality in access to, 85-9 opportunity hoarding by, 166-8 social mobility research and, 9-10
employers, OED triangle and attitudes of, 103
employment status class and, 16-19 income security and, 24-31 occupational categories and, 19-24 OED triangle and, 103 parental help and, 163-8 social fluidity patterns and, 77-83 upward and downward mobility and, 41n.5
endogenous mobility regime, 52-4 ethnic minorities, social mobility
research and, 9-10 Eurofound mobility study, 203n.ll European Social Survey (ESS), 192-9 European Socio-Economic
Classification (ESEC), 192-9
family structure. See also parental social status
direct effect of social origins and, 159-63
educational expansion and, 104
part-time work and downward
mobility and, 63-4 upward and downward mobility and,
44
Flynn effects, 113n.5 Future of Skills and Lifelong Learning study, 186n.l2
gender. See also men; women change in class trajectories over time
and, 135-42 class distribution and, 35-7 class trajectories analysis and, 133-5 cross-national comparisons of
mobility and, 192-9 income security and, 27-8 lifelong learning and upward and
downward mobility by, 176-83 mortality rates and, 31-2 qualification levels for labour market
entry and, 142-6 relative mobility rates and, 65-8,
70-2
social fluidity and, 77-83, 208 in social mobility research, 8 statistical models of mobility and, 59-61
total mobility rates and, 37-40 university education probability and, 119-22
gene-environment interaction, 109-10
g factor, 109-10
Glass, David, 1-2
glass floors and glass ceilings cognitive ability and, 159-63 intergenerational mobility and,
163-8 mobility and, 209-10
globalisation, British labour market and, 48-9
golden age of social mobility absolute mobility rates and, 211 educational policy and, 90-1 ending of, 43
managerial expansion during, 49-51 Gove, Michael, 124n.l2, 216n.5 government policy absolute mobility rates and, 45-6 educational attainment and, 123-7 inequality of condition and, 88-9
lifelong learning in, 183-7
low mobility assumptions and, 204-6
OED triangle and, 104-6
one-way effects in, 107n.l3
relative mobility rates and, 65-8
relevant areas in, 211-14
social mobility and, 3-12 Great British Class Survey, 86n.l0 Greening, Justine, 127n,16
Hakim, C, 62n.6
Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference schools, 8 7-8 n. 12
hereditarian theory, 110n.3
hierarchy effects class structure and, 72-4 gender differences in, 77-83
House of Lords Select Committee on Social Mobility, 4n.5
human capital theory, 103-4n.l0
imputation of variables, limitations of,
16n.3 income
class structure and, 15, 24-31 data scarcity concerning, 15-16 low mobility conditions and, 188-206 mobility and, 4-5n.6 omission of small employers and self-employed in studies of, 82n.8 parental status and, 114n.6
income security, class and, 24-31
independence model OED triangle and, 98-106 relative rates of mobility and, 56-8
inequalities of condition
equality of opportunity and, 217-18 social mobility and, 88-9
inheritance effects
class structure and, 72-4 gender differences in, 77-83 against the odds case studies involving, 83-9
interaction effect in OED triangle, 93n.3
interchangeable indicators, social
origins and, 108-9 intergenerational class mobility, 11 academic-vocational distinctions
and, 176-83
244
Judex
Index
245
intergenerational class mobility (cont.) case studies in, 44, 163-8 cross-national comparisons, 192-9 current trends in, 207 earnings elasticity and, 189-90n.3,
190n.4, 190n.3 income mobility and, 15-16, 45-6,
65-8
lifelong learning and, 169-76 low mobility assumptions and, 188-206
occupation-based classifications and,
23n.8 odds ratios and, 64-5 parental help and, 163-8 part-time work and, 61-4 relative mobility rates and, 68-70,
208
restrictions on, 85-9 social fluidity patterns and, 80-3 investment good, education as, 94-6, 104, 142-6
knowledge economy, 49-51, 128-9, 149-50
Labour Force Survey, 20n.7
income security data from, 24-31
labour market entry class and, 17-19, 129-35 class trajectories and, 135^12 direct effect of social origins on and, 153-7
educational expansion and, 103 income security and, 24-31 occupational categories and, 19-24
qualification levels for, 142-6
Liberal Democrats, social mobility policy and, 3—4, 4n.5
liberal ideology
low mobility assumptions and, 191-2 OED triangle and, 92-3
life-chances, class structure and, 31-2
lifelong learning class returns to, 176-83 countermobility and, 183-7 social mobility and, 169-76, 210
locus of control, direct effect of social origins and, 159-63, 166-8
loglinear models of mobility, 57n,3 logmultiplicative model of mobility 57n.3
London Challenge, 125-6n,13 London School of Economics, 1-2, 6 longimdinal studies, 8 loss aversion research, social mobility
and,68-70 low mobility assumptions, challenges
to, 188-206, 210
managerial employees class structure and, I 8-19 educational attainment and, 128-9 expansion of, 43 golden age expansion of, 49-51 income equality and, 29n.15 part-time work by, 61-3 social and public services and,
213-14 status affinity effects and, 74—7 Mandelson, Peter, 104-6 manufacturing renewal, policies
involving, 213 margin insensitive measures of
association, 56n.2 Market Research Society, 104n.ll marriage market, class structure and, 61-3
Matthew effect, 114-19 May, Theresa, 3-4, 211-14 men
change in class trajectory over time
for, 135-42 class trajectories for, 133-5 educational attainment and cognitive
ability in, 114-19 educational qualifications, absolute
measures of, 94-6 lifelong learning and upward and
downward mobility of, 176-83 qualification levels for labour market
entry and, 142-6 social fluidity patterns for,
77-83
statistical models of mobility for,
58-9
total mobility rates of, 39-41 university education probability and, 119-22
meritocracy class trajectories and, 135-42 cognitive ability and, 122-3 declining importance of, 146-51 limitations of, 5 social mobility and, 3-4
mid-way hypothesis, 32-3
Milburn, Alan, 218
'money for effort' bargain, class structure and, I 8-19
mortality rates, class structure and, 31-2
multiple imputation technique, 8n. 10 multivariate statistical models, in social mobility research, 8-9
national populations, social mobility
research and, 6,12 National Statistics Socio-Economic-Classification (NS-SEC), 19-24 class structure and, 35-7 hierarchy effects, 72-4 mortality rates and, 31-2 parental class categories, 111-15 New Labour
declining mobility and, 45-6 educational policies of, 216n.5 school effectiveness policy of, 123-7 social mobility policies under, 3—4, 104-6
non-cognitive attributes, direct effect of
social origins and, 160n.5 Nordic countries, social mobility data
for, 188-206 Nuffield College, Oxford mobility study, 6, 37-40 class trajectories and, 143—4 managerial expansion and, 49-51
objective opportunity structure, 214-16 occupational data
class structure and, 19-24
income security and, 28-9
social fluidity and, 77-83 occupational succession, social fluidity
and, 79-80 odds ratios
intergenerational mobility and, 64-5
relative rates of mobility and, 52-4, 85-9
social fluidity patterns and, 80-3 uniform difference (UN1D1FF) model,
57-8
OE (origin/education) association cross-national comparisons, 93n.3, 204-6
educational inequality and, 108-22,
152- 3
OED triangle and, 91-2 statistical models and, 98-106 OED triangle absolute measures of, 94-6 countermobility and, 184n,ll cross-national comparisons using,
204-6 defined, 91-2
interpretation of associations, 101-3
sociological research and, 92-3 ONS Longitudinal Study, 65n.8 educational expansion effects and, 102n.8
opportunity hoarding, 166-8 optimal matching analysis, class
trajectories and, 129-35 Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development,
189
overqualification, educational expansion and, 103^1n.10
Panel on Fair Access to the Professions, 4n.5
parental social status. See also family
structure behavioural factors and, 126-7 'commodification of opportunity'
and, 221-2 direct effect of social origins and,
153- 7
educational expansion and, 104 educational inequality and, 108 employment and, 163-8 government educational policies and,
123-7 income and, 114n.6 low mobility assumptions and,
188-206 part-time work and downward
mobility and, 63^1
246
Index
Index
247
parental social status, (cont.)
university education probability and, 1J 9-22
upward and downward mobility and, 44
part-time work
downward mobility and, 61-4
relative mobility rates and, 71n.l 'payment for performance' systems, 26 personal service economy, importance
of, 149-50 'perverse fluidity'
gender and, 59-61, 65n.8
part-time work and, 61-3 Plomin, Robert, 124n.l2 politics
absolute mobility rates and, 45-6 educational policy and, 104—6, 123-7 inequality of condition and, 88-9 low mobility assumptions and, 204-6 relative mobility rates and, 65-8 social mobility and, 3-12
portfolio work, 20n.7
positional good, education as, 94-6
post-communist countries, mobility rates in, 199-206
postindustrial transition class distribution and, 35-7 educational attainment and, 128-9 low mobility assumptions and, 191-2 OED triangle and, 92-3
private tutoring, 104n.l 1
professional employees
class distribution and, 35-7 class structure and, 18-19 direct effect of social origins and, 153-7
educational attainment and, 128-9
expansion of, 43, 49-51
part-time work by, 61-3
social and public services and, 213-14
status affinity effects and, 74-7 promotion from below, decline of, 128-9 promotion practices, class trajectories and, 150-1
qualification levels for labour market entry
academic-vocational distinction and,
176-83 class trajectories and, 142-6
direct effect of social origins and, 157-63
lifelong learning and, 169-76 parental help and, 159-63 upward mobility and, 148
recruitment practices, class trajectories
and,150-1 Registrar-General's Social Classes, 19,23 relational inequality, 13-15 relative mobility rates, 5, 12
absolute class mobility and, 34-5 class structure and, 208 constancy of, 43-4 cross-national comparisons, 191-2,
199-204 current trends in, 208 educational expansion and, 68, 96-100
government policies and, 214—16 income mobility and, 65-8 intergenerationa! changes in, 52-4 low mobility assumptions and,
188-206 odds ratio and, 54—6 statistical models for, 56-8 strategics for managing, 222-4 upward and downward mobility and,
68-70
Rise of the Meritocracy, The (Young), 3n.4
Robbins Report of 1963 101-3
salariat
class trajectories in, 133-5 direct effect of social origins and, 153-7
expansion of, 35-7, 43, 69n.l2
income security of, 24-31
qualification levels after labour market entry and, 157-63
slowdown in growth of, 48-9
social and public services and, 213-14 Say's Law, 49n.l3 school effectiveness policy, 123-7 school leaving age, raising of, 101-3 self-employment, 20n.7
class trajectories and, 140n.7
upward mobility and, 147 sequence analysis, class trajectories and, 129-35
service relationship, class structure and, 18-19
'shadow education', 104n.ll signalling theory, 103^1n.l0 silhouette widths in cluster analysis, 134n.5
skill-biased technological change, 49-51 social and public services, economic
growth and, 213-14 social class. See class structure social destinations. See also ED (education/social destination) association
class structure and, 65-8
education and, 8, 209-10
OED triangle and, 91-2 social fluidity
cross-national social mobility comparisons, 199-204
gender and, 77-83
hierarchy effects, 72-4
inheritance effects, 72-4
low-mobility assumptions and, 191-2
odds ratio and, 54-6
OED triangle and, 91-2
patterns of, 71-2
relative rates of mobility and, 52-4 status affinity effects, 74-7 social mobility absence of change in, 85-9, 101-3 context of, 13 defined, 13
economic theory and, 45-6 education and, 3
ethnic minorities and research on, 9-10
lifelong learning and, 169-76 perceived decline in, 47-8 postwar research on, 1-2 psychological costs of, 32-3 recent research on, 2 research methodology related to, 4-11
Sorokin's work on, 1 Social Mobility and Child Poverty
Commission, 87-8n.l2 social mobility cold spots, 166-8, 213 Social Mobility Commission, 3-4, 4-5n.6, 86n.l0 government policy
recommendations, 213n.3, 218-20
income and educational inequality
studies, 109n.l lifelong learning data, 171n.4 low mobility conditions and research,
188-206 parental status and educational
attainment research, 127n.l6 social mobility cold spots and, 166-8 Social Mobility Employer Index,
151n.l5
Social Mobility Foundation, 90n.l Social Mobility Transparency Board, 4n.5 social origins. See also direct effect of
social origins (DESO); OE (origin/
education) association ability and educational attainment
and, 108-22 class structure and, 43, 64-8, 209-10 class trajectories and, 129-35, 142-6 cognitive ability and, 114-19 direct effect of, 152-3 educational attainment and, 12,
108-22, 209 extent and durability of, 149 lifelong learning and, 169-76 OED triangle and, 91-2 parental help and, 159-63 qualification levels after labour
market entry and, 157-63 in social mobility research, 8 university education probability and,
119-22
socio-economic status, social mobility
and, 14-15n.l, 190n.4 Sorokin, P. A., I, 32-3 'spot' labour contracts, 17-19 statistical models
direct effect of social origins and,
153-7
OED triangle and, 98-106 relative rates of mobility, 56-8
status, class and, 13-15
status affinity effects
class structure and, 74-7 gender differences in, 77-83
super-managers, income equality and, 29n.l5
supply-side assumptions, 211-14
social mobility and, 48-9 Sure Start programme, 107n.l3 Sutton Trust, 90n.l, 189
248
Index
Index
249
talent, wastage of case studies, 122-3 cognitive ability and, 219-20 social origins and, 114-19, 209 university education probability and, 119-22
temporary employment growth of, 20n.7 income security and, 25n.11
total mobility rate age and, 39-41 class structure and, 37-40 cross-national comparisons, 192-9 low mobility assumptions and, 190-1,
204-6 odds ratio and, 54-6 stability of, 47-8
trendless fluctuation, Sorokin's concept of, 1
underemployment, income security and, 25-6
Understanding Society survey, 186n.l2 unemployment, class structure and risk
of, 24-31 uniform difference (UNfDIFF) model cross-national social mobility
comparisons, 199-204 educational levels and, 96-100 gender differences in, 59-61 relative rates of mobility and, 57-9 United Kingdom cross-national comparisons of
mobility with, 8, 12 golden age of social mobility in, 43 low mobility assumptions in, 188-206, 210
social mobility research in, 1-2 United States, social mobility
inequalities in, 88n.11 university education
class trajectories and, 142-6
expansion of, 101-3
parental status, cognitive ability and probability of, 119-22
upward mobility and, 209 unpaid internships, 167n.l3 upward mobility
age and, 39-41
case studies in, 44
cross-national comparisons of, 192-9 current trends in, 207 gender differences in, 41-2 lifelong learning and, 176-83 psychological costs of, 32-3 qualification levels and, 148 relative mobility rates and, 68-70 self-employment and, 147
vocational training. See also academic-vocational distinction lifelong learning and, 169-76 upward and downward mobility and, 176-83
wage-workers
class structure and, 18-19 direct effect of social origins and,
153-7 distribution of, 35-7
Ward's method of cluster analysis, 134n.4
wealth class structure and, 30-1 direct effect of social origins and, 165-6
white-collar status class structure and, 18-19 class trajectories and, 131-3 expansion of, 43, 49-51 income equality and, 29n.15 status affinity effects and, 74-7
women
change in class trajectory over time
for, 135-42 class trajectories for, 133-5 educational attainment and cognitive
ability in, 114-19 lifelong learning and upward and
downward mobility for, 176-83 part-time work and mobility for,
61-3
qualification levels for labour market
entry and, 142-6 relative mobility rates of, 65-8,
70-2
social fluidity patterns of, 77-83 statistical models of mobility for, 59-61
total mobility rates for, 41-2
university education probability and, 119-22
worklife mobility of, 146-51 working class
contraction of, 43
income security of, 24-31
status affinity effects and, 74-7 worklife mobility
class trajectories and, 146-51
lifelong learning and, 176-83 recruitment vs. promotion and, 150-1
Young, Michael, 3n,4
zero-hour contracts, 27n.l3 zero-sum game, social mobility and, 69n.12, 104-6
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