Sahel Security Complex Regional Security Complexes Josef Kraus Ph.D. Výsledek obrázku pro sahel old map How To Define Regional Complex? nThe ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone nUsually between the Sahara to the north and the Savanna nBetween Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea n nArabic word sáhil ساحل – shore, coast n https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Map_of_the_Sahel.png/1280px-Map_of_the_Sa hel.png https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Map_sahel.jpg/220px-Map_sahel.jpg How To Define Regional Complex? How To Define Regional Complex? nGeography – mainly flat, grassland and savanna nDry, tropical or steppe climate, high temperature contrasts nDesertification and soil loss ¡Over-farming, over-grazing, over-population ¡Natural soil erosion ¡Massive dust storms ¡-> resources conflict potential, malnutrition, famine, lack of fresh water, diseases n Výsledek obrázku pro sahel nature How To Define Regional Complex? nTraditionally inhabited by semi-nomads nBorders are not so important here – no respect to ethnic deployment -> high conflict potential, conflict spill-over… nWest collonized by French, East (Egypt, Sudan) by British Výsledek obrázku pro colonial borders africa How To Define Regional Complex? nPolitical / economical perspective ¡Community of Sahel-Saharan States ¡Established 1998 ¡Aims to create a free trade area ¡Platform for Chad-Sudan talks about Darfur ¡Common sport and cultural festival https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Community_of_Sahel-Saharan_States-map.PNG Main historical events – security dynamics nDecolonization from GB and France ¡Sahel after WWII ¡50s – Libya and Sudan ¡60s – others ¡Mainly peaceful independence gain (except Cameroon) ¡Soon internal power struggles n n Levels of conflict in modern history nInternal conflict – civil wars ¡(?) Mali, Niger – 4 x Tuareg Rebellions ¡Civil war in Chad (1965–82, 98-02, 05-10) ¡Nigeria and Republic of Biafra (1967 – 1970) ¡Nigeria Boko Haram insurgency (2009 – present) ¡First (1955-72) and Second (1983-05) Sudanese civil war + War in Darfur (2003 – present) ¡South Sudanese Civil War (2013 – present) ¡ ¡ ¡ Tuareg Rebellion nFirst (1962–64) – insurgency after Mali independence nJoined by tribes from north Niger and south Algeria nThe goal of independent Tuareg state to be formed n nAbout 1,500 anti-government fighters suppressed by Malian army -> refugees to French Algeria n ¡ ¡ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Tuareg_area.png Tuareg people n Související obrázek Výsledek obrázku pro tuareg Tuareg Rebellion nSecond (1990–95) nAutonomy goal by Tuaregs from Mali and Niger nAfter insurgency a period of famine and refugee crisis n1990 Attack on Malian governmental building n1992 New self-governing region created n1994 Tuaregs trained in Libya -> suppressed n + activating of Nigerian Tuaregs n1995 Moderates negotiated peace in Mali + followed by negotiation in Nigeria - successful Tuareg Rebellion nThird (2007–09) nTuareg guerilla attacks, army counterattacks in both states -> no-go zones for state officials at Tuareg country n2008 Mali crushed rebellion n2009 Nigerien peace due to Libyan backing nFourth (2012) - early stage of the Northern Mali conflict nFought by skilled Tuaregs from Libyan civil war nCoup d'état + Islamist Ansar Dine terrorist activity nEUTM for training Malian armed forces n Nigeria – Republic of Biafra nEthnical tensions, bad redistribution of national wealth n1967 – declaration of independent Republic of Biafra nEthnoreligious and resources war nInvolvement of external actors by backing ¡Biafra – France, Israel, Spain, Portugal, Rhodesia, SAR ¡Nigerian unity – Great Britain nGenocide, famine, epidemic in Biafra n1970 the end of war, Nigerian unity won http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-SU7DgID8NkI/TtaMumpztqI/AAAAAAAAAE8/7MGnoHJZPMU/s1600/Biafra.png https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcReL-SKN4rienHLXqU5n9CSyalYLF5kW74p6IghQVFcuXl iG6PFXg Sudanese civil war nBritish control of Egypt and Sudan territory n1955 – Declaration of independence and (first) civil war ¡North – Arabic, Islamic ¡South – Black, Christian and traditional religion ¡Effort of the North to dominate the South nMainly guerilla war n1972 – peace agreement with the South autonomy n1983 – the effort of application of Sharia towards the South n-> Second Sudanese civil war Výsledek obrázku pro big sudan map Sudanese civil war nThe creation of Sudan People's Liberation Army (John Garang) nFighting mainly at southern territory nWar, famine and disease -> 2 million deaths, 4 million displaced n1989 power seized by Umar Bashir - close cooperation to Hassan Turabi (National Islamic Front) nIslamic radicalization of Sudan n2005 peace talks in Nairobi, referenda promise n2011 South Sudan independence n2019 Coup d'état, Bashir toppled garang.jpg bashir.jpg Levels of conflict in modern history nState X State conflicts ¡Chadian-Libyan conflict (1978-87) ¡Eritrean–Ethiopian War (1998-00) ¡Chad-Sudan conflict (2005-10) ¡Sudan X South Sudan conflict (2011 – present) Chad-Sudan conflict and Darfur nDarfur - since 70s ethnic, economic and resource conflict in Sudan nCivil war in Chad – ethnic, religious nSudanese pro-governmental militia Janjaweed - ethnic cleansing -> refugees to neighboring Chad in 00s (spill-over) nSudanese government supported rebels in Chad - Chad reacted same way n2005 Sudan-Chad proxy war n2008 The effort of overthrow of Chad‘s government -> suppressed with help of French n2010 peace agreement Chad - Sudan Výsledek obrázku pro darfur sudan map Sudan-Sudan Conflict nRight after South Sudan independence (2011) war with the North nBoundary disputes (Abyei + Heglig), shooting incidences nTransport fees disputes, common and shared oil production n n2012 – regular war n2013 – civil war in SS (oil, ethnic violence…) nWeakening of the South, dominance of the North n http://www-tc.pbs.org/prod-media/newshour/photos/2012/02/22/map_slideshow.JPG Current threats to Sahel security nWars ¡Internal ¡Interstate nReligious extremism and terrorism ¡https://youtu.be/ZNHTCTD29T8 nCrime nMalnutrition ¡https://youtu.be/qQ9IKAodknA nDrug and human trafficing ¡https://youtu.be/FEYSdF17Jo8 n Conclusion nProblematic to label Sahel as a regional complex ¡…but, similar climate nReligious tensions – Islam X Christianity border line nWeak states – civil wars, state-non X state actor conflicts nWeak border control + nations without own states -> conflict spill-over nThe only common political project - Community of Sahel-Saharan States n n Thank you for your attention! nTime for Q&A Výsledek obrázku