Mgr. et Mgr. Vladimír Bizik
History of International Relations and World Politics (IRE102 / IREba.002)
The Ottoman Empire and Its Heritage in International Politics
i8th/i9th century
Ottoman empire in decline, retreat from Europe European imperialism
Russo-Ottoman war 1768-1774, Treaty of Kiiguk Kaynarca disastrous blow to the once-mighty empire basis for future conflict with Russia
Eastern Question
strategic competition, political considerations
of European powers resulting from Ottoman decline
late 18th to early 20th century
uSick Man of Europe" or uSick Man Upon the Bosporus" maintain the fragile balance of power in the Concert of Europe
Eastern Question
Ottoman military defeats institutional insolvency
political and economic modernization program rise of ethno-nationalism Great Power Rivalries
European powers wanted to safeguard their interests
Napoleon's invasion of Egypt (1798) demands in Istanbul and provinces (e.g. Mosul) end of decentralization reassertion of sultanic authority
Selim III (1789-1807)
and
Mahmut II (1808-39)
opened the Ottoman reform
era (1789-1922)
Selim III
uNew Order" (Nizam-i Cedid) - military reform efficiency, revenue increase
customary planning replaced with systematic planning rationalizations
Enlightenment - systematizing spirit - esprit de systeme rational-legal authority
Selim III
permanent diplomatic representation in Europe
reforms needed centralization of authority back to the sultan
warlords did not like limits to their power
too many vested interests
Selim Ill's deposition
Mahmut II
learned the lessons
stepped to neutralize the provincial warlords (except for Mehmet AN Pa§a [Muhammad AN of Egypt]) sultan's troops performed poorly against Greek rebels Mehmet Ali's performed well - sense of urgency
Mahmut II
abolishment of the Jenissaries (1826), after a mutiny uAuspicious Incident77 - leaders executed, others imprisoned resentment among Christians and new Muslim converts would lead to more rebellions
but it allowed resurrection of Selim's program and beyond
Mahmut II
new modern army (and a special guard for the sultan) new schools, diplomatic corps, institutional reform foreign help indispensable - new utility for diplomacy multiple purposes of modernization: survival, defense and appeal to the West
Mahmut II
1838 Ottoman-British treaty, effectively free trade needed British support to contain Muhammad AN free trade hurt Ottoman manufacturing especially Egyptian manufacturing
Abdülmecia 1839-186:
opened the Tanzimát era (1839 -1876
Gúlhane Decree (1839)
a.k.a. Hatt-i §erif (the Supreme Edict), Tanzimát Fermáni (Reorganization Edict)
start of the Tanzimát era (1839 -1876) promise of new reforms, path to equality of rights tax reforms (end of tax farming), procedural rights rights for life, honor and property to all subjects Muslim or non-Muslim
conformity with sharia (§eriat) guaranteed, it proclaims sharia's restoration, even though it effectively brought its erosion
Reform Decree (1856)
Islähat Fermäni, a.k.a. Islähat Hatt-i Hümäyünu (Imperial Reform Edict)
basically reformulates the Gülhane Decree in greater detail more guarantees of religious and personal freedom
changes in the political process
before: central rule, politics - rivalries between factions
now: emergence of proto-politics
advent of print and popularly distributed newspapers
in the Ottoman Turkish language
most drastic changes:
military organization
Tanzimat changes driven by the needs of military strengthening education (Ministry of Education, weakening of the ulema) needs of this world, not the next
changes in the legal system, secularization of the law undermining the authority of sharia
equality before the law among all citizens regardless of religion that is undermining one of the basic sharia principles territorialization of the legal system (a feature of all modern nations) ground for territorial nationalism, territorialization of identity
more non-Muslims in civil service
the state implementing elements of European nationalism
a sense of patriotic bond among citizens
the state had been losing purely religious legitimacy
new meanings of familiar words
vatan - used to mean ulocal homeland", now "fatherland" millet -used to refer to religious communities, now "nation" all encompassing sense of nationhood, like in Europe Ottoman(ism) - before it referred just to the ruling elite now the entire population was Ottoman
Young Ottomans
the first real opposition movement
used the new media tools of print
they later published from exile in Paris
not a party, but they brought a lot of liberal nationalist ideals
criticized the elite, the weakness of reforms
modernization without westernization (i.e. through Islam)
Namik Kemal
these reforms remove traditional constraints of sultan's power - the ulema, the Janissaries the Islamic institute of shura (consultation) later justification of writing of a constitution, parliament Islamic constitutionalism if the empire survives but loses its Islamic character, what good is it?
increasing power of civil bureaucracy, diplomacy, civil service
power at Bab-i All (Sublime Porte) - now centered in the civil
bureaucratic headquarters
grand vizier ("prime minister") was now usually
the foreign minister
Tanzimat
reform period
Western ideas-threat and inspiration era of the deepest crises but also reforms
it did not bring freedom, to the contrary, it brought centralization but it extended the life of the Ottoman Empire by almost a century set the stage for Ataturk's Turkey
Crisis with Egypt
Crisis with Egypt
Muhammad AN had conquered Crete, Syria, defeated the Ottoman army in Anatolia, Ottoman fleet defected European powers didn't want the empire to collapse a coalition of European powers intervened and pushed AN back he had to give up most of his conquered lands, just rule Egypt
Crisis with Egypt
the military emergency when Muhammad AN threatened Istanbul and the need of European help partly motivated the passing of the Gülhane Edict in 1839
Crisis with Egypt
Egypt formally part of Turkey but grew more autonomous and dependent on Europe
British cotton exports, Suez canal 1868 - strategic interest, Britain occupied Egypt in 1882 - de facto protectorate, WWi real protectorate, until 1952 continued occupation
greater freedoms were supposed to get more loyalty from Christians and other minorities towards to empire in reality, the opposite happened if equality, then independent states
a series of local crises
Crete, Lebanon - deepening sectarianism
a massacre of Christians in Damascus in i860
Crete revolt of 1866 (wanted to join Greece)
Serbian autonomy, Greek independence
asylum to revolutionaries from Hungary, Poland...
tensions with Austria, Russia
Crimean War 1853-1856
proximate cause: conflict between Catholic and Orthodox church
over Bethlehem (meanwhile resolved)
Russia, claiming protectorship over Orthodoxy issued an
ultimatum
root cause: Russia wanted Ottoman territories France and Britain were not willing to allow that Russia was ultimately defeated Treaty of Paris 1856
this emergency was a motivation to pass the Reform Decree in 1856
the Ottoman Empire became part of the Concert of Europe many Ottoman lands were neutralized or internationalized its integrity and sovereignty was further breached
More separatist nationalism
Romania joined the revolutionary wave of 1848 independence: 1878
rebellions: Bosnia, Montenegro, Bulgaria
the Ottoman empire had gone bankrupt after Crimean War
defaulted on foreign debt - no foreign help
massacres of Christians and counter-massacres of Muslims
unstable political situation in Istanbul
two sultans dethroned in three months
Young Ottomans had returned from exile
1876 - new sultan Abdulhamit II., ulast great sultan"
controversial, democratic/despotic?
The 1876 Constitution: Sultan Abdúlhamit II., the Grand Vizier, and the millets grant freedom to an idealized female figure representing [ Turkey, whose chains are being smashed. The flying angel displays a j banner with the motto of the French | Revolution: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity I in Turkish (Arabic script) and in Greek. The scene takes place in a generic Bosporus scenerv. Reproduced from a
1908 postcard (the printed caption of 1895 is inaccurate) celebrating the re-introduction of the constitution thanks to the Young Turk Revolution of 1908.
1876 Constitution
in part to ease European interference
constitution written by Young Ottomans
end of the Tanzimat period, the First Constitutional period
parliamentary elections ordered
1876 Constitution
relatively modern contemporary constitution division of power, independent courts but also absolute sultanic authority, primacy of the sharia religious officials in courts, no political party system
Russo-Turkish
,.p" r '
/y
War (1877-1878)
Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
the configuration of power had changed
increased role of public opinion, domestic politics in Britain
Britain had gotten invested Egypt
unified Germany a major power
rapprochement between Britain and Russia
Russia was given a free hand
Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria - revolts against tax collectors sharp escalation
mass killings of Christians and counter-killings of Muslims Orthodox Balkan states + Russia attacked the Ottoman empire
Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
Russia eventually broke Ottoman defense, barged into Istanbul full of Muslim refugees from the Balkans - massacred Russia gained vast territories
de facto independent Balkans states became independent
Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
The Ottoman empire - "the sick man of Europe" close to extinction various territorial losses
new influx of Muslim refugees into the shrunken territory the empire became more Asian and more Muslim that reflected on Abdulhamit's politics and policies
Abdülhamit II.
criticized for his conduct of the war, he dismissed the parliament
vowed not to wage another war (almost successful)
except for a war with Greece (1897)
revolts of Ottoman Greeks who wanted to join Greece
+ conflict over the status of Crete
the Ottoman Empire won, but Crete got de facto independent
Abdulhamit's reign - a break from the Tanzimat
use of Islam and sultan's role as the universal protector of Islam
interpreted as despotic by republican Turkey
but: flourishing popular press, universal education (boys and girls)
increase in public services
big changes in everyday life, economy
(because of reforms or just sheer progress)
Unrest brewing again
after years of relative peace, unrest in the Balkans (Macedonia) strengthening of political dissent
Young Turks
a group of students began meeting, especially inThessaloniki
ideas of Turkish nationalism
mostly ethnically non-Turkish Muslims
Young Turks - many different agendas, factions
backgrounds - often foreign-educated bourgeoisie, but also
aristocrats who fought for liberalization, privatization, etc.
Young Turks
Committee of Union and Progress - CUP
seat inThessaloniki
slogan:
Hurriyet, Musavat, Adalet (Liberty, Equality, Justice)
Abdülhamit's "betrayal
unrest in the Balkans continued, Abdülhamit met with British and Russian monarchs to strike a deal the arrangement would lose much of its remaining control over the Balkans
Young Turk Revolution
CUP took to arms, set demands
restoration of the constitution
the sultan sent a delegation to restore order
a key officer was killed and others refused to fight
Abdulhamit agreed to restore the constitution, parliament
POSTALI
24 JUILLET
Second Constitutional Era Constitutional Revolution
1908
the sultan's power was greatly diminished
new constitution - system of political parties, popular elections
CUP started dominating politics
a brief religiously motivated counter-revolution Abdulhamit II. had nothing to do with it but was forced to step down regardless
prelude to the first World Wa strong ties to Germany
r f
animosity to Russia I
i
joined the Central Powers ■
Ě
Armenian Genocide
Armenian Genocide
historical animosities towards Armenians (educated, wealthy) Young Turks - extremely nationalistic, propaganda against non-Turks, labeling as enemies
WWi - labeled as potential collaborators with the enemy threat to national security, deportations, killings security policy, but all definition criteria of a genocide met
Armenian Genocide
official Turkish position: killings took place, but were not state policy
result: 90% of Armenians killed or displaced
because of this and events of 19th century (separatism) Turkey a became a homogeneous Turkish nation-state
Literature
Kasaba, Re§at. The Cambridge History of Turkey. Vol. 4: Turkey in the Modern World, pp. 2-61.