History of International Relations and World Politics (IRE102 / IREba.002)
The Fall of Imperial China and Japanese Modernization Until 1945
China (^IH / ^S)- millennia of rich imperial history Chinese inventions:
gunpowder (in search for immortality elixir)
printing (wood page block, also movable type before Guttenberg)
mechanical clock
Mercator-style maps
smallpox inoculation
many transformations, Mongol conquest (Kublai Khan) i3th-i5th century-Yuan (7c) conquest dynasty restoration - Ming (BJ) dynasty (14th to 17th century) age of sea exploration (later banned almost overnight) later trend towards isolationism, xenophobia less (but still some) international trade, contact
Qing dynasty
peasant rebellions, uprisings, chaos
1644 - Manchus invaded Beijing (zlt^l) and conquered China
named their dynasty Qing ()m) and stayed in power until 1911
one of the less traumatic dynastic transition
welcomed and seen as a better alternative to chaos
initial unrest defeated (a short-lived Ming loyalist regime in Taiwan)
Qing dynasty
institutions and philosophy of rule remained unchanged slight cultural change, impositions
Manchu queue (pigtail) - all boys beyond puberty, otherwise death 19th century rebellions - cutting off queues, growing hair
Politics of Men's Hair in Chinese History
(a condensed timeline)
Antiquity to Ming Dynasty 1 prior to Queue Order in 1645)	Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912)	Republic of China (after Revolution of 1911-12)
Long, uncut & bound hair: social control, Confucian filial piety, Han Chinese culturalism, virility Cutting hair / tonsured head: anti-social control, unfilial to parents, uncivilized, barbarian	Tonsured head & queue: social control, symbol of Han Chinese submission to Manchurian authority Full hair / short hair: anti-social control, treason to Manchurian government = execution	Short hair: social control, nationalism, liberation from Manchu oppression. Westernization Tonsured head & queue: anti-social control, backwardness, deviant, loyalist to former Qing regime
TYL NASTI
1915
Qing dynasty
China rose again - wealth, population growth Europe idolized China, everybody wanted trade growth of moral philosophy
Enlightenment philosophers looked up to Qing China
Chinese imperial system
multiethnic empire
Han (/M) China (China proper)-only half of the territory surrounding areas - no direct control, no sovereignty suzerainty-form of feudal lordship
Chinese imperial system
a belt of surrounding vassal pseudo-independent tributary states Korea, Vietnam, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, etc. sent local products (tributes) to the emperor the emissary would perform the kowtow (PHI! l^^kl fi^II / %£t^k) (repeated kneeling and audible bang of forehead on the floor)
Chinese imperial system
symbolic recognition of the status of a humble vassal this submission brought many benefits:
protection, trade privileges, prestige, legitimacy for the local ruler
Chinese world order?
not all nations, not even relatively nearby ones, were members of the tribute system
the Qing never regarded Japan or India as tributary states some nations (e.g. European) wanted good trade relations so they accepted some elements of the system led to misunderstandings and friction (19th century)
Trade restrictions
China all but closed down to trade and other contact trade restricted to the single city of Canton (Guangzhou, JS'Jtl / DM) October till January; inspections, measurements, fees, tariffs "presents" (bribes) for inspectors
various go-betweens, ship pilots, pidgin translators and linguists traders couldn't bring families, couldn't move freely
Cultural misunderstanding
Europeans were used to the Westphalian system formally equal sovereign partners Chinese considered themselves the center of civilization everybody had to be naturally drawn to China to bear tribute
Cultural misunderstanding
envoys were expected to kowtow
after trade, they were graciously allowed to stay for a few days and then swiftly leave
commerce was viewed as beneath the majesty's dignity trade was something done between private men why would the emperor deal with commerce?
Macartney Mission (1793)
British government sent Lord Macartney to the Qianlong emperor (^1^)
demands: residential diplomatic representation in Beijing
trade throughout China, exemption for British traders from Chinese law
Macartney Mission (1793)
the Chinese thought they were tribute bearers coming to congratulate the emperor on his 83rd birthday
British refused to kowtow (just standard kneel on one knee) British view: a servant of the most powerful monarch can't submit Chinese view: emperor is the Son of Heaven, everybody is his tributary
Macartney Mission (1793)
request was denied
ethnocentricity of the edict that was sent back to England the proud British were flabbergasted
uOur Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its borders. There is therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce/7
AN IMPERIAL EDICTTOTHE KING OF ENGLAND:
You, O King, are so inclined toward our civilization that you have sent a special envoy across the seas to bring our Court your memorial of congratulations on the occasion of my birthday and to present your native products as an expression of your thoughtfulness. On perusing your memorial, so simply worded and sincerely conceived, I am impressed by your genuine respectfulness and friendliness and greatly pleased. As to the request made in your memorial, O King, to send one of your nationals to stay at the Celestial Court to take care of your country's trade with China, this is not in harmony with the state system of our dynasty and will definitely not be permitted. There has never been a precedent for letting them do whatever they like. The Celestial Court has pacified and possessed the territory within the four seas. Its sole aim is to do its utmost to achieve good government and to manage political affairs, attaching no value to strange jewels and precious objects. The various articles presented by you, O King, this time are accepted by my special order to the office in charge of such functions in consideration of the offerings having come from a long distance with sincere good wishes. As a matter of fact, the virtue and prestige of the Celestial Dynasty having spread far and wide, the kings of the myriad nations come by land and sea with all sorts of precious things. Consequently, there is nothing we lack, as your principal envoy and others have themselves observed. We have never set much store on strange or ingenious objects, nor do we need any more of your country's manufactures.
Lord Amherst's mission (1816)
one last attempt to change China's practices peacefully
Lord Amherst - former governor of British India
demand list basically identical to Macartney's
refused to kowtow and ended up being similarly unsuccessful
Paying for goods
British bought a lot of tea from China (became very popular) also porcelain (hence "china"), artificial flowers, etc. problem - how to pay for goods China generally demanded silver as currency
no silver mines in Britain - buying silver in Germany for golden pounds expensive - looking for alternative things to offer in exchange
Opium
"Among the remedies which it has pleased Almighty God to give to man to relieve his sufferings, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium.u (Thomas Sydenham, uFather of British Medicine")
Opium smokers (19th century)
Opium
known at least since 8th century; anesthetic, aphrodisiac; no stigma legal during the Ming dynasty
after the India conquest British East India Company gained a monopoly
Qing China banned opium (but for a long time tolerated it)
an elaborate trading scheme established
legal markets through intermediaries + illicit means
Opium
end of 18th century - British opium exports to China had skyrocketed 1799 - ban of all opium imports to China
Americans entered the market too (lower-quality Turkish opium) another condemning Qing decree
the government up north in Beijing couldn't stop trade in the south by 1830s the trade moved mostly to private traders
Lord William John Napier superintendent for trade
Lord William John Napier
presented himself directly to the Chinese authorities in Canton
violated all the rules of conduct
wanted to increase the dignity of British crown in China
went too far - kept bragging Britain is always ready to go to war
wanted to display fleet power - troops were less enthusiastic
Captain Charles Elliot
instructed to be less confrontationa
but he dragged the countries to war
S I
Road to the ist Opium War
1839 -12 million opium addicts in China
the emperor sent a special emissary to Canton, arrested Chinese dealers sieged factories and wanted foreign merchants to give up opium trapped traders, including Elliot, for weeks inside Elliot confiscated all opium, proclaimed it property of Queen Victoria surrendered it, 1,000 tons of opium burned in a month
ist Opium War (1840-1841)
destruction of Queen's property -1840 war declared (after hot debate) quick British advancement, ships sailed up the Yangtze River about to bombard Nanjing (M^l) - China surrendered overwhelming British military superiority (one battle: 9 minutes) firearms, canons vs. bows, swords
a messenger lied to the emperor about splendid Chinese victories
Nanjing Treaty (1841)
Hong Kong ceded to the British Crown
5 new port cities in the south and east
large indemnity payment
abolition of trade restrictions, uniform tariff
British exterritoriality: exemption from Chinese jurisdiction
first of the "Unequal Treaties"
Aftermath of the ist Opium War
turning point, beginning of downfall from Celestial Court to the Sick Man of Asia
other nations "smelled the blood", sustained nibbling away of territories more treaties: 1844Treaty of Wanghia (US), Treaty of Whampoa (France)
Road to the 2nd Opium War
not all British goals were met (no representation in Beijing) ports were open, but Canton still wouldn't let the British in perception that only war can change China's behavior after the Crimean War, there was appetite for war in the West look for a cassus belli, an excuse
2nd Opium War (1856 -1860)
1856 a British-registered (British flag) ship boarded by Chinese officials in search for a wanted pirate
British protested - violation of the flag - excuse for a war
France also joined (excuse: Chinese torture and killing of a missionary)
2nd Opium War (1856 -1860)
British and French bombarded Canton for 5 days sent an emissary, Lord Elgin, to chastise the Chinese
arrested the defiant and racist governor and imprisoned him in India
I
2nd Opium War (1856 -1860)
sailed north, stormed Tianjin (^/^) and headed towards Beijing terrified Chinese signed the Treaty of Tianjin (1858) residential British diplomacy, new ports, indemnities official government documents must be issued in English unrestricted travel for all foreigners in China including Protestant and Catholic missionaries
2nd Opium War (1856 -1860)
1859 Chinese government resisted British ambassador entering Beijing
another expeditionary force, this time to Beijing, again led by Lord Elgin
they burned down the imperial (Old) Summer Palace
first time a foreign imperialist power stormed a Chinese capital
a great national trauma - the site of the palace preserved
2nd Opium War (1856 -1860)
i860 The Convention of Beijing
once and for all stationing of diplomats in Beijing
more indemnities
cession of the Kowloon (All) peninsula opposite Hong Kong to Britain right of French missionaries to own property in Chinese hinterland
Taiping Rebellion
opium wars and foreign intrusion - external calamity Taiping (^^F) rebellion - internal calamity nearly brought down the Qing
one of the worst civil wars ever- up to 40 million casualties
before - overpopulation, millions suffered from malnutrition, starvation
1840s - starving peasants began the roam and make a living as bandits
Taiping Rebellion
Hong Xiuquan - leading figure of the rebellion
mentally unstable, imaginative, very charismatic, a cult of followers
came across Christian teaching
thought he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ
thought that the biblical Kingdom of Heaven referred to China
the devils were the Manchus; personal instructions from God to rise up
Taiping Rebellion
by early 1850 - a few desperate fighters grew to a large movement pseudo-Christian ideology members cut their queues
allegiance to Taiping Tianguo - Greatly Peaceful Heavenly Kingdom
Taiping Rebellion
armies grew, captured lands wherever they came, also built a navy 1853: captured Nanjing, killed every Manchu they found proclaimed it their capital failed to conquer Beijing
Taiping Rebellion
1850s, 1860s - mostly stayed in Nanjing and surrounding region
big contrast to the rest of China - cleaner streets, more freedom
after many fights back-and-forth, Nanjing reconquered by the Qing
rebellion definitely defeated in 1864
some Western sympathy for religious reasons
but support for the government (security of interests)
The Aftermath ofTaiping Rebellion
Qing never fully recovered, royal authority diminished regions grew more independent, rise of irregular local militias more revolutions
relatively positive view of theTaipings
both in Republican China (Sun Yat-Sen) and Communist China
The Aftermath ofTaiping Rebellion
inability to resist foreign invasions
Japanese occupation of Taiwan (Ä/tt / p)l /        in 1874 Russian occupation of part of Xinjiang (Uril) from 1871 to 1881 French invasion of Vietnam, a Qing tributary state, in 1885
Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)
Qing tried to learn lessons from these upheavals, renew order, prestige institutional and technological modernization
something close to a foreign diplomatic office, foreign language schools
reformed customs office (and let the British run it)
basics of international law, no longer shaped by China's supremacy
Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)
selective learning of Western advances
leaders convince that China could modernize but not westernize their view reduced the need to modernize only weaponry provinces got foreign help
built new arsenals, shipyards, mines, textile mills, telegraph lines modern navy
Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)
never reached the full potential - little leadership, weak government didn't realize that the West was powerful not just due to technology also social, political, economic system to be competitive would take much more terribly unprepared for what came next
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
status of Korea - a Chinese tributary state since the Ming newly modernizing Japan wanted it independent (= in Japanese orbit) 1894 - a Japanese warship sunk a Qing ship in Korean waters mutual declaration of war
Japanese fleet - much smaller, but faster, better trained, tactics the Qing fleet was quickly defeated
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
Chinese navy: huge incompetence, corruption most R&D money went to somebody's pockets ships7 guns had contained sand instead of gunpowder cannons filled with chopsticks, rice, pickles
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
1895: Treaty of Shimonoseki (TU )
Liaodong (MM. I Ü^h) peninsula (Manchuria), Taiwan ceded to Japan Korea was recognized independent payment of huge war indemnities
Aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War	
Japan: new predominant economic, military power China: Sick Man of Asia	
After 1895
Russia secured railway rights in Manchuria, seized several port cities Germany pressured the Qing into leasing port of Shandong (lllH/ lll^R) New Territories opposite Hong Kong leased to Britain for 99 years (expired in 1997, when the British gave the New Territories, as well as Kowloon and the island of Hong Kong, back to China)
After 1895
in a few years China was divided between major foreign powers within their spheres of influence were basically enclaves big humiliation of Chinese patriots Self-Strengthening Period reforms were insufficient
Hundred Days' Reform (1898)
Kang Youwei (M^%h I JH^f ^D)
very distinguished and respected scholar, idealist
passionate letters to the Guangxu emperor (^cIS / %%$k)
if China is to survive, drastic reform is necessary
the emperor was impressed and invited Kang for a personal audience
spoke for five hours, the emperor was convinced
Hundred Days' Reform (1898)
June - September 1898: a series of imperial reform edicts
drastic changes in law, examination system
government overhaul, goal of a federal constitutional monarchy
parliament, administrative branches, emperor a formal head of state
Coup of 1898
emperor's aunt Empress Dowager Cixi (Hi!) (''compassionate joy")
real behind-the-curtain power (47 years in total)
had her nephew arrested and assumed power herself, abolished reform
Kang and his supporters to be arrested
Kang escaped to Japan (hero's welcome)
Coup of 1898
the reform failed, because it was not favored by people really in power did not have the backing of the military
future revolutionaries saw that Qing had to be overthrown violently Communist historiography: Kang was a bourgeois reformist his class and education deceived him to thinking that a mere institutional reform would be enough
Open Door Policy
US Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Note 1899
proposal to keep China open to trade to all equally
no power should have total power and interfere with others' interests
allow Chinese government to work, collect taxes, etc.
only Britain showed any interest, others were reluctant
Open Door Policy
USA: isolationist strategy at that time
it was clear USA would not fight to uphold the policy
treaties and gestures from various parties, lip service to the policy
but still competition over railroad rights, mining rights, loans, ports...
later wars and revolutions made the policy completely obsolete
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)
a new xenophobic, superstitious, proto-nationalist movement was anti-Westernism unjustified?
Yihequan 5Lfa^)- Righteous and Harmonious Fists
laterYihetuan (Jt^S) / Xjfo1^) - Righteous and Harmonious Militia
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)
originally an anti-Manchu, anti-Qing uprising anti-Qing because of their surrender to foreign powers a native Han government could face foreigners better xenophobia against foreign missionaries
in the countryside they were the most visible part of foreign occupation
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)
initial center of the uprising was the Shandong province boxers touted mental and physical discipline martial arts training
claimed resistance to foreign bullets and bayonets more and more people joined, thousands of followers
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)
foreigners in Shandong increasingly terrorized, open displays of power
foreign powers tried to make the government respond
but the more than ever powerful Empress Dowager Cixi
essentially got converted to their cause
she wanted to use the rebellion to fight the foreign powers
the two sides eventually joined forces
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)
the movement spread, got to Beijing
more and more displays of hatred of foreigners
they encircled the diplomatic neighborhood, trapped inhabitants
started massacring missionaries as well as Chinese Christians
burning foreign houses, churches, desecrating foreign graves
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)
Empress Dowager Cixi announced a break of diplomatic ties declared war, all foreign diplomats ordered to leave within 24 hours some left, some feared the journey and stayed in Beijing
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901)
German diplomat Clemens von Ketteier murdered by a mob
the legations, against all odds, managed to call for help
the siege was actually not that bad (Cixi had food sent to the diplomats)
tremendous international attention, vastly overblown hysteria
New York Sun: "the most exciting episode ever known to civilization"
Eight-Nation Alliance
a combined relief force was assembled, tens of thousands of troops Japan, Russia, Britain, United States, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy numerous Qing governors (especially southern) also joined them uproto-humanitarian intervention" lifted the siege against foreign legations looted the city of Beijing, punitive looting
Eight-Nation Alliance
American and Japanese troops quite civilized, restrained German troops exceptionally cruel - looting, murdering, raping supporters of the Boxers committed suicide Empress Dowager Cixi fled the city with her puppet emperor
Boxer Protocol (1901)
all parties pretended it was just a regular rebellion, swept under the rug 1901: Boxer Protocol (peace treaty)
execution of some leaders
enormous indemnities to 10 nations
largely return to previous status quo
Aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion
another national humiliation, loss of national esteem
foreigners were no longer condescended, but feared
indemnities stopped economic growth
China became unpopular in the West - "yellow peril"
the Qing limped along for a few more years, halfhearted reforms
increasingly unpopular, growing sentiment that it has to go
Revolution of 1911
most young officials, military officers,
students-elites
inspired by revolutionary ideas of significant revolutionary and patriot SunYat-Sentf&EMlll)
7
Revolution of igii
October 1911: a mutiny in the central Chinese city of Wuchang (IEtü)
spread very quickly, Xinhai (^^) Revolution
early 1912 the last Manchu emperor of China abdicated
peacefully and amicably, without a cataclysmic showdown
the Qing, like dynasties before, had lost the umandate of heaven"
end of 2,000 years of dynastic Chinese empire —> Republic of China
Japan (B^)
island on the periphery of Eurasia
17th century-much better off than Britain-200 years changed all periphery doesn't mean much
history is never determined, it is always unpredictable, only obvious in hindsight
Japan
about 1500 years of recorded history 2nd half of ist millennium AD: big influence of China religion, philosophy, system of rule, culture, language later - isolation, competition, hostility to China
Medieval Japan
7th - 19th century - a remarkable measure of continuity "oriental feudalism"
independently evolved a system very similar to Europe
system of land tenure and a vassal receiving tenure in exchange for
an oath of fealty
Medieval Japan
strictly stratified society
peasants (90% of population) were serfs
paid 40-45% of their income to the ruling class
the country united into Japan as we know it today (more or less) in the 16th century
Medieval Japan
12th century onwards: rule of military commanders - shöguns ffiW-) de facto complete power
most significant: theTokugawa (f^UH) "dynasty": 1600-1868 Portuguese compared it to the European system: emperor = pope; shögun = king/emperor
First contact with Europeans
16th century: Portuguese explorers and traders called nanban Mia- - barbarians from the south mutual wariness, also gradual learning
Japanese about Europeans:
uThey eat with their fingers instead of with chopsticks such as we use. They show their feelings without any self-control. They cannot understand the meaning of written characters/7
Alessandro Valignano, an Italian missionary:
The Japanese uexcel not only all the other Oriental peoples, they
surpass the Europeans as well.,,
A Spanish royal decree of 1609 ordered commanders "not to risk the reputation of our arms and state against Japanese soldiers/7
European technology in Japan
Japanese got from the Portuguese: early firearms, European-style armor
decorative art
deep-frying food
refining sugar - new styles of confectionary
decorative art, language (many old loanwords from Portuguese)
Christianity in Japan
missionary work of Catholic missionaries
increasing popularity and influence of"padres"
end of 16th century: 200,000 - 300,000 Japanese Catholics
Christianity in Japan
increasingly seen as a threat to public order Buddhist monks lobbied for restrictions
eventually a few dozen of Catholics exemplarily executed (crucified)
the rest abandoned the religion
from then on, Christianity only underground
Japanese and the Netherlands
the Dutch happily helped them with restricting the Catholics nobody hated Catholics more than the Protestant Dutch the Dutch came in contact with Japan shortly after the Portuguese were called komo        - red hair
Dutch monopoly for European trade
17th century
complete prohibition of trade and contact with all nations except from China, Korea and the Netherlands the only port for the outside world
artificial island of Dejima (ttS J§) in the bay of Nagasaki (J^llipf)
Sakoku
period of sakoku (tHH) - closed country (until 1868) very hostile approach to foreigners shipwrecked sailors cruelly executed
Sakoku
feudalism continued
significant population growth, building of cities, castle towns, commodification of agriculture and domestic trade, wage labor, increasing literacy, print culture
however: increasing population led to lack of land, starvation, unrest 2nd half of 18th century to 19th century - great deterioration
Interest of the USA
USA wanted to start trading with Japan after the war with Mexico they had access to the Pacific means for a more assertive policy in the Pacific region strategic value of Japan for trade with China
The Mission of James Biddle (1846)
commodore James Biddle entered the Bay of Tokyo with two warships wanted Japan to sign a treaty like China had (Treaty of Wanghia) 10 days of back and forth misunderstandings, swords drawn all demands denied, trade only with Holland dealing with castaways an internal matter
The Matthew Perry Expedition (1853)
commodore Matthew Perry, president Millard Fillmore believed in Manifest Destiny
American exceptionalism, destiny-given role for America superiority of American ideas duty to "civilize" other nations
The Matthew Perry Expedition (1853)
Perry - geopolitical thinking
Russia destined to be America's arch-enemy
exactly opposite interests and values
wanted to sign a treaty with Japan before anybody else
to prevent Russia from gaining influence
The Matthew Perry Expedition (1853)
also wanted to annex islands in the South China Sea, e.g. Taiwan that was denied
expedition to Japan - willingness to change its stance by demonstration of force and superior power
The Matthew Perry Expedition (1853)
Perry read all available books on Japan, consulted with Japanologists got "full and discretionary powers", could use force if necessary no professional diplomats on the mission official painters and early photographers came castaways from Japan as unofficial interpreters antique weapons, firearms, swords taken as gifts
The Matthew Perry Expedition (1853)
a fleet of uBlack Ships" entered the Bay of Tokyo in July 1853
canons fired blank shots (allegedly to celebrate Independence Day)
surrounded by Japanese ships
one had a large sign in French demanding they leave
(they had nothing else to communicate with Europeans)
The Matthew Perry Expedition (1853)
after some time dialogue initiated with envoys demanded a letter from the US president be delivered to the emperor the envoys flabbergasted - who deals with the powerless emperor? ostensible show of force, patrolling with smaller ships
The Matthew Perry Expedition (1853)
the ruling shogun was ill, chaos, how to handle the situation after several days: accepting a letter does not violate sovereignty Perry was allowed to anchor his ships he pompously went ashore, hundreds of soldiers marched arms presentation, army band playing and singing eventually left Japan, said he would return for a reply
Reaction to Perry#s visit
a very wide debate in the government, all lords asked for opinions the first actual political debate - birth of Japanese politics voting took place those in favor of opening up won
Reaction to Perry#s visit
arrival of American ships prompted deep questions
how come their ships and army equipment was so advanced?
the Japanese had never seen steam powered ships
Japan saw the world as Japan, maybe China, the rest barbarians
how come these barbarians have superior technology?
what has gone wrong, what can we do?
Perry's return (1854)
Perry's fleet returned, basically all American demands were met
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Treaty of Kanagawa (1854)
treaty of Kanagawa (WtkJH) signed 1854 mutual peace with the US amicable treatment of shipwrecked sailors two small ports opened to Americans American consulate
didn't open Japan to the world, but uput the foot in the door"
Townsend Harris (first US consul to Japan)
arrived in 1856, no military backing
a year in isolation, nobody spoke to him, wanted him to leave he persevered, dug through the bureaucracy he knew he needed to talk to the shogun took him 6 months to get an audience another 6 months to draw up an agreement
Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1858)
open trade stipulations 4 additional ports
US citizens can reside in treaty ports, freedom of religion extraterritoriality for foreign traders, diplomats the treaty - basis for treaties with other nations
the new treaties greatly polarized, destabilized the society on the verge of civil war
some military clans protested shogun's openness to foreigners
the crisis culminated when a clan closed off the Straits of Shimonoseki (IIF^/SlK) between the islands Honshu (^#1) and Kyushu (A'Jtl) to all foreign ships
Shimonoseki Campaign (1863-1864)
a military expedition to break the blockade
Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and the United States
one of the few times before WWi the US fought alongside Europeans
(in the middle of the Civil War, didn't want to show weakness)
the rebel clans defeated
1864 the Straits of Shimonoseki re-opened
After the Shimonoseki Campaign
Europeans were shocked that the central Japanese government had acquired steam ships and other modern equipment a decade ago Japan had never heard of them
agreement reached: payment of damages, customs and tariff regulation one of the few multi-party treaties the US participated in
growing unrest in Japan, the shogun had to mitigate the situation ordered all foreigners to leave Japan
but secretly guaranteed to all foreigners that it won't be enforced
1866-1867 both the shogun and emperor died
new shogun Yoshinobu (J$H)
right away started with radical reforms
Yoshinobu's Reforms
massive government overhaul
invited the French to help and supervise construction of naval arsenals
re-organization of the army
also help of Russians and the British
many weapons bought from the US
feeling that the Tokugawa shogunate can reform itself
Japanese Revolution (1868 -1869)
a.k.a. Boshin War (JJcMlfe^)
mounting opposition to the shogunate, reforms
samurai clans united, wanted to restore the emperor's authority
Sonno joi (WilLlilH): "Revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians."
Japanese Revolution (1868 -1869)
the anti-Tokugawa forces prevailed, Yoshinobu resigned the authority of the emperor was restored (symbolically) new emperor, commonly known as Meiji (^/p) period known as the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) following decades: new, very radical rapid reform period
Meiji Reforms
military reform, modernization abolishment of the samurai class
the government made sure the samurai are not alienated given prominent government positions, respected the usamurai spirit" stayed in the army - motivation in wars nationwide conscription, right to bear arms
Meiji Reforms
land reform - land could now be traded, many villagers got rich led to a natural decline of strictly divided social classes social and economic mobility
Meiji Reforms
hand in hand with military modernization unprecedented industrialization
in a few decades a feudal society turned into an industrial nation-state
Meiji Reforms
Western laws - inspiration primarily by German, French legal codes foundation of the parliament (not much power at first) emergence of political parties the emperor didn't have real power
restoration of the emperor just a chimera, it was just an instrument we don't know his opinions, he was mostly a poet (pacifist leanings)
The 1889 Constitution
Constitution of the Empire of Japan (XH^^IHÄ/i)
mix of absolutist and constitutional monarchy (inspired by UK, Prussia)
emperor - a symbolic head of state
legislative: popularly elected Imperial Diet
executive: cabinet, headed by the prime minister (real power)
independent judiciary
Meiji Reforms
reform of education, modern universities, academic freedoms
could teach foreign ideas, philosophy
new ideas - a progressive new generation
universal education
economic growth, population growth
Meiji Reforms
lifted ban on other religions railway system, telegraph lines
hired hundreds of advisors from the West: education, mining, banking, law, military affairs, transportation import and contribution to Western science and medicine Gregorian calendar, Western clothing, Western hairstyles
Meiji Reforms
most of the reforms were material and institutional it took much slower for Western ideas to get through reluctant to give up cultural heritage
and when they implemented Western philosophy, they got inspired by the worst: western imperialism, sense of superiority
Japanese Expansionism
first: forays in the neighborhood, skirmishes with Korea and Taiwan 1873: at the brink of war with Korea
Japan backed off - resistance at home - demand for assertiveness
Japanese Expansionism
1874: punitive military expedition to Taiwan
(retaliation for 54 killed sailors by Taiwanese aboriginal people)
weakened Qing
first overseas deployment of imperial army and navy appetite for more Japanese adventurism
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
status of Korea
Japan wanted Korea independent (= in Japanese orbit)
1894 - a Japanese warship sunk a Chinese ship in Korean waters
mutual declaration of war
Japanese fleet - much smaller, but faster, better trained, tactics the Chinese fleet was quickly defeated
The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)
1895: Treaty of Shimonoseki (TU ) Taiwan ("n $|) ceded to Japan Korea was recognized independent payment of huge war indemnities
Aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War
Russian Forces in Manchuria
Japanese involvement in the Boxer Uprising intervention would lead to a conflict with Russia Russia kept its troops in Manchuria after the intervention wanted a warm-water port (Vladivostok only worked in summer) USA and Japan didn't like it
Russian Forces in Manchuria
Japan offered Russia control of Manchuria in exchange for Russian acceptance of Japanese control of Korea Russia refused - was very confident (a huge miscalculation) negotiations broke down
Russo-Japanese War (1904 -1905)
1904 Japanese hostilities, attacked Russian fleet
Russia - from the start problems with logistics
obsolete equipment, training
a series of Japanese victories
decisive naval battle of Tsushima $tf|)
Russo-Japanese War (1904 -1905)
Japan gained control of Korea, Liaodong peninsula, deep into Manchuria
Russia was in the middle of a revolution, willing to negotiate
major role of the US as a mediator in peace negotiations
president Theodore Roosevelt didn't want Russia to weaken too much
it would distort the balance of power; wanted the war to end quickly
Taft-Katsura "agreement"
in fact a memorandum sent by the Japanese to Roosevelt
recording a conversation between US secretary of war William Howard
Taft and Japanese prime ministerTaro Katsura (t±^fi|5)
US would recognize Japanese influence over Korea
Japan would recognize American influence in the Philippines
not technically secret, but not publicly known until 1924
Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)
mediation by US president Theodore Roosevelt (Nobel Peace Price) ended the Russo-Japanese war
recognition of Japanese claims to Korea, Liaodong peninsula (including naval base of Port Arthur), south of Manchuria and Sakhalin Japan didn't get the large indemnities they demanded Russia kept north of Manchuria
unbeknownst to Americans, Japan and Russia had a secret agreement Japan became the beneficiary of secret arrangements that Russia had gained in China, took over from Russia
Japanese public disappointed - felt that Japan deserved more
nationalists blamed mostly the US, growing animosity
Japan gradually started asserting its rights in areas it felt naturally
under its influence (e.g. China)
would manifest in WWi, culminate in WW2
Literature
Fairbank, John King - Goldman, Merle. 2006. China: A New History, Second Enlarged Edition. Harvard University Press.
Wright, David Curtis. 2011. The History of China, 2nd Edition. Greenwood.
Cullen, L. M. 2003. A History of Japan, 1582-1941. Internal and External Worlds. Cambridge University Press
Gray, Colin S. War, Peace and International Relations. An Introduction to Strategic History. Routledge: London and New York
Holland, H. M., Emmerson, J.K. The Eagle And The Rising Sun: America And Japan In The Twentieth Century. Stanford Alumni Association