The Second Caucasian war:
Chechen wars
IREn5019 No War, No Peace: Frozen Conflicts in the Caucasus
Mgr. Zinaida Bechná, Ph.D.
3 November 2021
Structure
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RF in transition
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Manifestation of issues at stake
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Conflict escalation
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Full scale war
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Uncertain peace
●
II Chechen war
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Terrorism, guerilla warfare
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Discussion: power vertical.
The RF in transition
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Mikhail Gorbachov – General secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
1985.
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Perestroika (re-structuring) – initially economic reform.
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Liberalization project: first step – glasnost in order to mobilize public for the wider
programme of perestroika.
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Glasnost: release of political prisoners, new freedoms to the mass media, “the first
step on our road towards democracy”.
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Gorbachov believed in the socialist ideal through controlled democratization.
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Glasnost “triggered the expression of grievances and opinions, which the authorities
were unable to control and which fatally weakened the legitimacy of Soviet rule”.
The RF in transition
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August 1991- the coup attempt.
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Idealistic aspirations were soon destroyed by corruption, mistrust and
subterfuge.
●
Chechen independence movement against this backdrop of the Russian
transition.
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Colonel Charles Blandy argues that interethnic tension in the Northern
Caucasus arose in a consequence of perestroika and glasnost.
●
Moshe Lewin argues that “it was not… the exit of nationalities… {that} caused
the downfall”, but rather “it was the decline and de facto downfall of the regime
that gave them the chance to leave.”
The RF in transition
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Nationalism has been soon used as a tool to achieve self-determination.
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Norther Caucasian states were predominantly governed by minority nation – Russians.
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Chechen elite extremely underdeveloped – no Chechen held senior positions in government.
(only Chechens who married Russian women had a chance to reach a leading position)
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Complex social and economic problems:
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Income rates were well below the national average: in 1985 : 158 out of 199 roubles and in
1991 : 392 opposed to 548 roubles. Unemployment rate was high : rural, dependent on
agriculture.
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Oil industry: Chechen oil very few impurities, ideal for aviation.
Groznyy – major oil-refining centre, still lack of employment.
Gastarbeiter, grey economy, criminal structure plus high demographic growth
Manifestation of issues at stake
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“Vinogradov theory” 1987 – consolidation of opposition against
communist control.
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1988 environmental protests against construction of a biochemical
plant in Gudermes : thousands of citizens in the mass meetings
which also spread to Groznyy.
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Environmental issues soon gained a political character : demands
over greater autonomy, national movement against Soviet rule.
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The National Front led by Khozh-Akhmed Bisultanov : first and
leading opposition force = “bottom-up” political activism.
Manifestation of issues at stake
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Establishment of Congress of People Deputies , 1989: ethnic Chechens finally permitted to take an
active role in Soviet politics (professor Salambek Khadzhiev, Lecha Magomadov gained seats in the
Congress).
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Salambek Khadzhiyev first Chechen in the Soviet government: USSR Minister of the Chemical Industry.
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Ruslan Khasbulatov became Chairman of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet.
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Doku Zavgayev July 1898 : First Secretary of the republican Communist party → regional ambitions,
independent newspapers and journals, religious freedom, creation of the North Caucasian Islamic Party
“Rebirth”, restoration of the Sharia law.
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Zavgayev with support of the NF instigated wave of revolutions in order to consolidate his personal
power:
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In 1990 a week demonstrations in five rayony “regional revolutions” : dismissal of the First Secretaries
and Communist leadership, a cement factory, lack of roads and infrastructure, pollution of water and
“social injustices”.
Manifestation of issues at stake
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March 1990 parliamentary elections: victory for local “democrats”,
Bisultanov “Democratic Initiative” parliamentary faction.
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Summer 1990 “Bart” (“Unity”) the Chechen association, renamed to
“Vainakh Democratic Party” : “the first political party in Chechnya… which
openly proclaimed its objective to be the creation of and independent,
national state… the beginning of the end of Soviet power in Cechcnya,the
North Caucasus and the entire Soviet empire”.
●
The first National Congress of Chechen People in November 1990 in
Groznyy. The aim was to put pressure on the local authorities in order to
achieve political change.
Manifestation of issues at stake
●
Three conflicting political tendencies:
1. The republic’s leadership (Zavgayev)
2. The moderate democrats (Khadzhiev)
3. The “radicals” (Yandarbiyev, Bislan Gantemirov and Yaragai Mamodayev).
●
The Supreme Soviet passed the sovereignty resolution Noverber 27th
, 1990 : the republic was a
sovereign state, which was not a component of either RSFSR or the SSSR.
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May Dudaev as a fresh Chairman of the OKChN Executive Committee declared that Chechen-Ingush
Supreme Soviet lost its legitimacy, no confidence in the soviet leadership – total independence and
creation of Islamic state.
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The centre-periphery struggles both within Chechnya-Ingushetia as well as between Moscow and
Groznyy.
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Yeltsin: “take as much sovereignty as you can swallow”.
Manifestation of issues at stake
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Dudayev calling on the Chechen people to support Yeltsin’s
anti-coup position and “show endurance, determination and
courage in defending democracy and human dignity”.
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On August 22nd Dudayev and his supporters seized the
television station in Groznyy in order to broadcast a speech
by the OKChN leader outlining the opposition’s demands:
dissolution of the local Supreme Soviet, and the resignation
of Zavgayev.
Conflict escalation
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Dudayev and his armed forces were already well equipped
to defend the republic.
●
The Russian troops finally withdrew in June 1992-->
signified the destruction of the final pillar of Moscow’s
authority in the republic.
●
Moscow failed to take any decisive action in Chechnya at
this time because similar incidents were occurring across
the territory of the former Soviet Union.
Weaponry left in Chechnya, June
1992
Weaponry left in Chechnya, June
1992
Conflict escalation
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In March 1992 a new Constitution.
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Article One: ‘The Chechen Republic is a sovereign,democratic state functioning in accordance
with constitutional law, created as a result of the self-determination of the Chechen people. It has a
supreme right over its territorial and national wealth [and] independently defines its own foreign
and domestic policy...The state sovereignty of theChechen Republic is indivisible.’
●
However huge economic and social problems: impoverishment of the people, criminalisation of the
state and increased violence
●
March 1992 armed supporters of the opposition seized the television and radio stations in
Groznyy, demanding the resignation of Dudayev and parliament calling for fresh elections.
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Accusation of Moscow in planning this event, Russian policy of opposing the Dudayev regime by
means of providing support for competing factions within the republic constituted a ‘proxy war’.
●
1993 Civil war in Chechnya
Main anti-Dudayev opposition
groups
Russian policy in the Chechen crisis
Full scale war
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Russia was afraid ‘Chechen virus of separatism’, domino effect, religious extremism – military action.
●
The party of War: the role of Russian in the world. The first stage of the plan involved air attacks on strategic
communications points across Chechnya, including raids against Dudayev’s forces located around Groznyy.
Russian Defense Minister Pavel Grachev warned that an operation in Chechnya would take “10 minutes to plan,
10 hours to execute, and 10 years to finish”
●
The culmination of this Russian-sponsored operation was the storming of Groznyy on November 26th.
Combined opposition forces, approximately 1,500, attacked the city at dawn from three directions,supported by
Russian tanks, armoured vehicles and aircraft.
●
The Chechen government forces were well-armed, including more than 150 snipers. The opposition’s tanks
quickly reached the centre of Groznyy,but, lacking infantry support, came under heavy fire from the rocketpropelled
grenades of Dudayev’s forces, a mistake that was to be repeated frequently by federal troops during
the 1994–96 war.
●
The Chechen government forces had taken up positions on the upper floors of Groznyy’s buildings, which
enabled them to fire unseen at the beleaguered tanks. Many of the Russian tank crews were killed and the
survivors were captured.
Battle of Groznyy
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1994-1995 Battle of Grozny ended by Russian forces taking the city,
approximately over 30, 000 civilian killed and more than 2,000 Russian
soldiers.
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After Groznny Dudaev and his forces moved to the mountains.
Chechen forces retake Grozny in 1996.
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Yeltsin signed the peace treaty.
●
Russian military death between 3,500 to 7, 500 and from 3, 000 to 17,
000 Chechens killed or missing. Civilian deaths between 30, 000 to
100, 000 and over 200, 000 injured while more than 500, 000 were
displaced.
Images of War
Uncertain peace
●
1996 April - Dzokhar Dudayev killed in a Russian missile attack; Zemlikhan
Yandarbiyev succeeds him.
1996 August - Chechen rebels launch a successful attack on Grozny;
Russian military leaders and Chechen rebels sign the Khasavyurt ceasefire
accords, followed by an agreement on a Russian troop withdrawal in
November.
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1997 January - Russia recognises Aslan Maskhadov's government following
his victory in Chechen presidential elections.
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1997 May - Yeltsin and Maskhadov sign a formal peace treaty, but the issue
of independence was not resolved.
Chechen War II
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1999 March - Moscow's top envoy to Chechnya, General Gennadiy Shpigun,
is kidnapped from the airport in Grozny. His corpse is found in Chechnya in
March 2000.
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1999 July/August - Chechen fighters clash with Russian troops on the
Chechnya-Dagestan border; Chechen rebels carry out armed incursions into
Dagestan in an attempt to create an Islamic state.
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1999 September - The authorities blame a series of apartment block bombings
on Chechen rebels and launch the second Chechen war.
Chechen war II
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In 1999 Chechen forces
invaded Dagestan.
Consequently Russian
troops were sent to
Chechnya.
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Moscow’s second campaign in the North Caucasus, begun in
1999, aimed to defeat Chechen separatism and the safe haven it
provided for terrorism. But after the Russian government
declared “victory over terrorists” in the spring of 2000, acts of
terror intensified.
●
I phase:
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Air strikes wipe out Chechen Air Force, land lines, mobile
phone transponders, television stations, radio stations,
bridges, rebel bases.
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II phase:
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Russian Army easily takes northern Chechnya, including a
symbolic rebel stronghold and the second-largest city in
Chechnya.
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III phase
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The aim was to destroy the insurgents who undermined
the Russians in the First Chechen War
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In 2000: Grozny retaken by Russian troops
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Land war taken to the mountainous south of Grozny
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Stiff resistance met in the mountains
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Non-Chechen volunteers rejoin the fight
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Victory of Russia?
Terrorism, guerilla warfare
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Terrorist attacks increased on civilian targets in Russia including: blowing up an
apartment building in Dagestan 1996, 69 people died.
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A bomb explosion in the Russian railway station in Armavir, 3 people died and
Pyatigorsk 2 victims 1997.
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In 1998 a Russian army convoy in Ingushetia was ambushed, 2 colonels and 3
soldiers killed.
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Explosion in the Central market in Vladikavkaz, 64 victims.
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2002 armed Chechen men and women seizure in the crowded Moscow theatre,
900 hostages , 33 militants and 128 hostages dies.
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2004 Beslan school hostage, 334 people dead.
Discussion
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Does Chechnya have the right to secede?Does Chechnya have the right to secede?
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Are the Chechen militants terrorists attacking innocentAre the Chechen militants terrorists attacking innocent
civilians? Or freedom fighters attacking a brutal regime?civilians? Or freedom fighters attacking a brutal regime?
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Are the Russian’s justified in indiscriminatelyAre the Russian’s justified in indiscriminately
bombarding cities when separatists hide among them?bombarding cities when separatists hide among them?
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What is Chechen status within Russian federation?What is Chechen status within Russian federation?
“Power Vertical”
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Ramaz Kadyrov’s private state and Vladimir Putin’s federal “power vertical”: recentralization of political structures.
Especially after a hostage crisis in the Beslan in September 2004 (300 people killed when Russian security forces
stormed a school occupied by terrorists). “Power vertical” limited the federal subjects’ independent policy-making, the
National Guard (Ross-gvardiya) as one of the most striking instituion.
●
In 2010 the Northern Caucasus (previously the part of the Southern Federal District) promoted to its own federal district,
run by a special representative of the Russian president.
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“Municipal filter”: a candidate have to submit signatures of mayors and delegates of a local and district councils.
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In March 2018 replacement of older “territorial prices” with younger ones, easier to control technocrats. 19 governors
were forced to resign.
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Kadyrov “Putin’s foot soldier”: Chechen is a part of Russia, links Chechen nationalism with Russian patriotism
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Putin is in Grozny – a state icon.
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“Chechen Khanate” or “Kadyrov’s caliphate” – advocate for Russian multiethnic unity.
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Fight against terrorism and Islamist extremism = greatest challenge for its national security policy.
Kadyrov’s Private state “Pax
Ramzana”●
Kadyrov dynasty - except for president Putin nobody could limit his
authority, neither parliament nor the media or judicial mechanisms.
●
Kadyrov recieves almost 100% of votes. He uses collective
punishment against adversaries and vendetta.
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“Kadyrovsty” 30 000 men.
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After second Chechen war – local civil war.
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Russia attained three goals:
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1. war causalities among the population has declined.
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2. transfer of counter-insurgency fight to the Kadyrovsty distances
Moscow from the battlefield of Chechnya an accusations of humanrights
violations.
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3. Kadyrov managed to drive back the insurgency and remained
loyal to Putin.
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Chechen society is still traumatised by the two wars, causalities
almost in every family.
●
“There are those for whom everything is allowed. And there’s the
mass of people who have no rights at all…
Literature
●
Galeotti, Mark (2014): “Russia’s Wars in Chechnya
1994-2009,” Osprey Publishing.
●
German, Tracey, C. (2003): “Russia’s Chechen war,”
Routledge, London, New York.
●
Halbach, Uwe (2018): “Chechnya’s Status within the
Russian Federation”, German Institute for International
and security Affaies, SWP Research paper.