Attitudes of risk? Implication for nature? Compromise, Consensus, or Complementarity? Cultural Theory of Worldviews Placing value on the environment —Utilitarian – survival or economic —Ecological – essential to larger life support systems —Aesthetic – our appreciation of the beauty of nature —Moral – environment has a right to exist http://www.uvm.edu/giee/default1.png To what extent do our beliefs about the nature of reality, our worldview, affect the degree or intensity of our manipulation of nature? http://creationwiki.org/pool/images/5/5c/Worldview.png Attitudes toward nature implicit in all worldviews can have either a restraining or enhancing influence upon the tendency of human civilizations to despoil their natural surroundings (p. 137). Human nature is not the same from society to society or from individual to individual, nor is it a permanent attribute of Homo sapiens (p.138). Lafreniere G. 2007. The Decline of Nature : Environmental History and the Western Worldview Worldviews survey SD D N A SA Item 1. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment will become unstable if humans exceed the limits identified by experts. 2. 1 2 3 4 5 Humans are part of the natural environment, not separate from it. 3. 1 2 3 4 5 There are plenty of resources for humans to use in the natural environment. 4. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment is unpredictable. 5. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment is strong and stable, but only up to a certain point. 6. 1 2 3 4 5 All things in the natural environment are interconnected and dependent on each other. 7. 1 2 3 4 5 Human industry and technology has not caused significant damage to the natural environment. 8. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment can be harsh and unfair. 9. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment is manageable within the known limits. 10. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment is fragile and the balance can be easily upset. 11. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment is strong and can easily adapt to human activity. 12. 1 2 3 4 5 Often there's no explanation or reason for the things that happen in the natural environment. 13. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment can be managed if there are clear rules about what is allowed. 14. 1 2 3 4 5 The natural environment can only be protected if there are large changes in human behavior and society. 15. 1 2 3 4 5 Technology can solve environmental problems. 16. 1 2 3 4 5 Attempts to manage the natural environment usually end in failure. 17. 1 2 3 4 5 The Government and scientists should be responsible for managing the natural environment. 18. 1 2 3 4 5 We all have a moral obligation to protect the environment and consume fewer resources. 19. 1 2 3 4 5 Individuals should have freedom of choice regardless of the environmental impacts. 20. 1 2 3 4 5 Environmental rules and regulations are just a way for the authorities and environmentalists to control individuals. 21. 1 2 3 4 5 Sustainable development is the most rational strategy for managing the natural environment. 22. 1 2 3 4 5 Conservation and protection is the most rational strategy for managing the natural environment. 23. 1 2 3 4 5 Economic competition and deregulation is the most rational strategy for managing the natural environment. 24. 1 2 3 4 5 Doing nothing is the most rational strategy for managing the natural environment SD = strongly disagree; D = disagree; N = neither agree nor disagree; A = agree; SA = strongly agree Sum up your scores for question numbers: 1)+5)+9)+13)+17)+21) = 2)+6)+10)+14)+18)+22) = 3)+7)+11)+15)+19)+23) = 4)+8)+12)+16)+20)+24) = Different Perspectives of Nature Everything is connected – environmental unity, balance of nature, events are directly and indirectly connected together. Traditional cultures also feel this is beyond human understanding yet treat nature with respect in order to avoid adverse consequences. Human ecology (systems ecology) studies the great chain of effects that reverberate through ecosystems and social systems, with explicit effort to identify and quantify the details of these connections. Cultural Theory is based on the hypothesis that one’s world view shapes one’s social relationships and perceptions, and that these social relationships contribute to one’s world view (Douglas and Wildavsky, 1982, Thompson et al., 1990). This positive feedback loop reinforces particular perceptions and cultural contexts. Four Cultural Types/Solidarities 1. We do not need to worry about environmental problems; the environment is not easily disturbed. - DURABLE 2. Environmental problems will not easily run out of control, but we must not exceed limits. - REASONABLE WITHIN LIMITS 3. We have to be very careful with the environment; the slightest change may be catastrophic. - FRAGILE 4. We do not know whether environmental problems will aggravate or not. - CAPRICIOUS grid Egalitarian/Fragile Individualist/Durable Fatalist/Capricious Hierarchist/Reasonable within limits group Hermit Cultural Theory Solidarities (Thompson 1997) Individualist Individualists’ choices are unconstrained by society and lack close ties to other people. They value individual initiative in the marketplace, and fear threats like war that would hamper free exchange. The individualist view of nature is described as cornucopian or resilient. Thus, individualists embrace trial-and-error, as they have confidence that the system will fix itself in the end. Egalitarian Egalitarians live in voluntary associations where everyone is equal and the good of the group comes before the good of any individual. In order to maintain their solidarity, egalitarians are sensitive to low probability-high consequence risks (such as nuclear power), and use them to paint a picture of impending apocalypse. Egalitarians see nature as fragile. Thus egalitarians advocate the precautionary principle and cling to traditional ways of life that have proven to be sustainable, rather than risking disaster by trying new technologies. Hierarchist Hierarchist society has a well-defined role for each member. Hierarchists believe in the need for a well-defined system of rules, and fear social deviance (such as crime) that disrupts those rules. Hierarchists see nature as "perverse/tolerant": it can be exploited within certain limits, but if those limits are exceeded the system will collapse. They thus rely heavily on experts, who can identify those limits and establish rules to keep society within proper bounds. Fatalist Fatalists feel isolated in the face of an external world imposing arbitrary constraints on them. Thus, they feel that there is little they can do to control their situation, and resign themselves to riding out whatever fate throws at them. Because of their passive stance, fatalists are often excluded from Cultural Theory analyses. Not Manage needs Manage needs Not Manage resources Fatalist (capricious) Egalitarian (ephemeral) Manage resources Individualist (benign) Hierarchist (perverse yet tolerant ) “technology” Nature Tolerant Nature Benign Nature Ephemeral solution strategy political strategy “government” “market” “behavior” Conclusion Cultural theorists maintain there is not one “correct” solidarity, but that they are complementary. In light of dynamical systems, this could be analogous to early and late successional species. Each solidarity might play a role at a more central role at a certain time under certain circumstances http://viraltheshow.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/logistic-curve-viral-marketing.GIF Dominance/Success of each worldview during stages of societal development Individualist – resources plentiful Egalitarian – resources scarce Hierarchist – resources showing signs of scarcity Fortunately, there are typically many different places and resources in the many niches that exist in a complex and diverse world, thus giving a role to each cultural bias. How to make sure that continues? Attitudes of Religions toward nature Religion is a powerful way for a culture to organize its values and behaviors – offers moral codes about what is right and what is wrong Particularly effective because they are reinforced by emotionally compelling beliefs, symbols and rituals. Animism Spirits are primitive explanations for natural processes; passed down through oral traditions Sun god, moon god, water god, fertility god, harvest god,… Eastern Religions Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism have similarities with spirit religions, but these are codified in writing. People are part of nature with no special status. For example, Buddhism – restraining desire is the key to happiness. Use of natural resources should be limited to meeting basic needs. Reincarnation – returning to the same place encourages one to protect it Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song dynasty. - en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism Western religions Began with Judaism and development of monotheism. “God created man is his own image”, man not a part of nature. Nature is sacred since God created it Humans are superior to other animals Humans have a responsibility as custodians/stewards of Earth Punishment for those that do not behave Scrovegni Chapel, Padua, Italy – Fresco by Giotto 1305 About 400 years ago, science provided new explanations of nature as a machine (which it is not). Religion merged with economics Calvinism – chosen people (eternal life in heaven) should have material wealth on Earth. Wealth acquired a positive spiritual value, even if gained through destructive exploitation of nature. More recently many Christians are turning to earlier Christian values. The World Council of Churches promotes preservation and restoration of natural environment. May 24, 2015 ENCYCLICAL LETTER LAUDATO SI’ OF THE HOLY FATHER FRANCIS ON CARE FOR OUR COMMON HOME www.youtube.com/watch?v=QLVdvLPeSKA Note of caution about romanticizing nature and traditional social systems. Not everything completely natural is good for humans. People have found it useful to modify ecosystems so that they function in ways which serve human needs. Some traditional societies have coevolved with their ecosystems. They are co-adapted and have inter-generational focus. But, not all traditional societies have healthy relationships with the environment. Within these paradigms, there is variability of how we fit new knowledge into pre-existing structures. Cultures and their story tellers help us make sense of the world. Challenge is to combine an ethical values and scientific understanding to find a sustainable path for society. Ecosystem services – the benefits people get from nature —How do we value what we get from nature? — —Ways of valuing nature — Utilitarian — Ecological — Aesthetic — Moral Economists and politicians mainly/only consider $$$ Ecological Economists wanted to give credit to “Natural Capital” —We get a lot of stuff from nature that we do not pay for —oxygen —clean air —clean water —soil formation —climate regulation —crop pollination —decomposition of wastes — — Energy flow and material cycling —Emergent properties of ecosystems that result from primary production of plants and consumption by heterotrophs — —These are renewable processes if nature is not overexploited — Energy is the ability to do work Forms of energy: potential, kinetic, thermal, chemical, electrical, etc. 1st Law of Thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: energy goes from a high quality to a lower quality during each energy transformation; while energy is conserved, it’s ability to due work decreases Production and consumption —Photosynthesis results in biological production —Building block —Source of energy for metabolic activity — —Respiration is outflow during consumption of the biological production — —Different ecological roles emerge —Producers (plants) —Herbivores —Carnivores (predators) —Decomposers (scavengers) — Biological production is main service http://ideonexus.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/coalformation.jpg http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/102/ecycle.gif Simplified Energy Flow in Food Web Sustainable systems are based on renewable flows such as solar energy Material cycling —Biogeochemical cycles —Some macronutrients are needed for life processes: —Carbon —Water —Nitrogen —Phosphorus —… — —Tracing these cycles helps to understand how we have modified them Carbon cycle – photosynthesis & respiration The “stuff” of nature is reused – in the biogeochemical cycles; the energy of nature flows through Ecosystem Changes in Last 50 Years —Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in human history —More land was converted to cropland in the 30 years after 1950 than in the 150 years between 1700 and 1850 —20% of the world’s coral reefs and 35% of mangrove area were lost —This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth Unprecedented change: Biogeochemical Cycles —Since 1960: —Flows of biologically available nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems 2x —Flows of phosphorus 3x — — —60% of the increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2 since 1750 has taken place since 1959 — Human-produced Reactive Nitrogen Humans produce as much biologically available N as all natural pathways and this may grow a further 65% by 2050 gene-fig-1 Synthetic N was first manufactured in 1913. Since 1750, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by about 32% (from about 280 to 376 parts per million in 2003), primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels and land use changes. Millennium Ecosystem Study —Ecological changes have contributed to substantial net gains in human well-being and economic development —Since 1960, while population doubled and economic activity increased 6-fold, and food production increased 2 ½ times —But these gains have been achieved at growing costs that, unless addressed, will substantially diminish the benefits that future generations obtain from ecosystems The degradation of ecosystem services represents loss of a capital asset —Ecosystem services, as well as resources such as mineral deposits, soil nutrients, and fossil fuels are capital assets —Loss of wealth due to ecosystem degradation is not reflected in economic accounts —A country could cut its forests and deplete its fisheries, and this would show only as a positive gain in GDP without registering the corresponding decline in assets (wealth) —A number of countries that appeared to have positive growth in net savings (wealth) in 2001 actually experienced a loss in wealth when degradation of natural resources were factored into the accounts Visit the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Website —All MA reports available to download —Access to core data —MA ‘outreach’ kit —Slides —Communication tools www.MAweb.org