38 CHAPTER 2 Obstacles to Critical Thinking
-—Exercises marked with *
have answers in ”Answers to Exercises” (Appendix A).
Exercise 2.1
*1 . According to the text's definition of critical thinking, what factors must be
present for critical thinking to be realized?
2. What are the two main categories of common obstacles t0 critical thinking?
3. What did W. K. Clifford say about the morality of believing claims?
4. What is stereotyping?
*5. From the standpoint of critical thinking, what event signals that we have
allowed our bias in favor of ourselves to go too far?
6. According to the text, what effect can our urge to save face have on our
thinking?
*7. When are you most likely to let your self—interest get in the way of clear
thinking?
8. How does subjective relativism imply infallibility?
9. How are subjective and social relativism self—defeating?
1o. According to the text, how might selective attention affect your thinking
when you are examining evidence for 0r against a claim?
*1 1. How might the influence of a group that you belong to affect your attempts
t0 think critically?
12. According to the text, what is the most powerful group pressure of all?
13. What is the appeal to popularity?
*1 4. What is a worldview?
1 5. In order to know something, must it be beyond all possible doubt? Why or
why not?
16. According to the text, how could subjective relativism make critical thinking
unnecessary?
*1 7. Is critical thinking concerned With the objective or the subjective truth of
claims?
18. What is social relativism?
19. What is philosophical skepticism?
20. Does our knowledge require certainty?
*21 . What kind of doubt is involved in the acquisition 0f knowledge?
Exercise 2.2
For each of the following passages, indicate whether it contains examples of
self-interested thinking, face-saving, or group pressure. Some of these are really
tough.
*1.
9’
3
*4.
6
*7.
9
*10.
11.
Exercises
Mary: Animals have the same rights as humans.
Jenna: What makes you think that?
Mary: I love animals, and there are so many that are treated horribly all
over the world. It’s heartbreaking.
Jonathan: My essay is better than Julio’s.
Betty: Why do you think yours is better than all the others? Do you agree
that the content and writing 0f all the essays are similar?
Jonathan: Well, yes.
Betty: Do you agree that all the other benchmarks of quality are nearly
identical?
Jonathan: Yes, but mine is still better.
Dear friends, as your state senator I will continue my tireless work on your
behalf. I will continue to use my considerable talents to make this district
even better. I will continue t0 let my integrity be the guide for all my actions.
We cannot allow those people to move into this neighborhood. They’re not
like us.
. I oppose women becoming members of this club. IfI endorsed their claims,
every friend I’ve got in the club would turn his back on me.
His statements about the West Bank are all false, of course. He’s an Israeli.
Christianity is superior to all other religions. Iwas raised Christian, and all
my relatives are Christians. This is the only religion I’ve known, and the
only one I need.
.
I’m due for tenure next year, so I am in favor of continuing the tradition of
tenure at this university.
The United States is the greatest nation 0n the face of the earth. I don’t
know anything about other countries, and I don’t want to know.
If Joan is appointed to the committee, I am guaranteed t0 have a job for the
rest 0f my life. I wholeheartedly favor Joan’s appointment.
Free speech should not extend to pornographers. Right now they are a1—
1owed to espouse their smut 0n the Internet and many other places. That’s
just not how I was raised.
Exercise 2.3
Read each of the following claims. Then select from the list any statements that,
if true, would constitute good reasons for accepting the claim. Be careful: In some
questions, none 0f the Choices are correct.
*1. John: The newspaper account of the charges of pedophilia lodged against
Father ]. Miller, a Catholic priest in our town, should never have been printed.
a. The Charges are false.
b. John is a Catholic.
40 CHAPTER 2 Obstacles to Critical Thinking
c. Important evidence that would exonerate Father Miller was not mentioned
in the newspaper account.
d. The town is predominantly Catholic.
2. Alice: The speed limit on 1—95 should be 7O mph.
a. Raising the speed limit to 7O mph would result in faster and safer
traffic.
b. The state commission on highways did a study showing that 1-95
should have a limit of 70 mph.
c. Alice travels 1-95 every day and needs to drive 7O mph to get to work
0n time.
d. Alice drives 1-95 every day.
*3. Janette: Women are less Violent and less emotional than men.
a. A study from Harvard shows that women are less Violent and less
emotional than men.
b. Janette is a woman.
c. Janette is a member of a group of women who are fighting for the
rights 0f women.
d. Janette and all her friends are women.
4. Brie: People should buy stock in IBM, an action that will push the price per
share higher.
a. Brie owns a large proportion of IBM stock.
b. Brie is chair of the board at IBM.
c. The stock market is weak.
d. Brie has a large family to support.
5. Colonel Stockton: The United States should attack the terrorists in Iran,
even at the risk of a full—scale war with Arab states.
a. The terrorists have humiliated Colonel Stockton’s forces.
b. The terrorists have humiliated the United States.
c. Colonel Stockton is loyal to his troops, all of whom want to attack the
terrorists in Iran.
d. Attacking the terrorists in Iran would cause no casualties and would
result in world peace.
*6. Morgan: Capital punishment is always wrong.
a. A11 of Morgan’s friends agree that capital punishment is wrong.
b. If Morgan favored capital punishment, her friends would abandon
her.
c. Morgan is president of the Anti—Capital Punishment League.
d. Morgan has already made her Views known and cannot change her
mind without seeming to be inconsistent.
7.
Exercises
Angelo: Marijuana should be legalized.
a. A11 of Angelo’s friends smoke marijuana.
b. Legalizing marijuana would reduce the consumption of marijuana
and save lives, money, and resources.
c. Angelo has already said on television that marijuana should be legalized.
d. Angelo likes to smoke marijuana.
Exercise 2.4
Read each of the following passages. Indicate whether it contains examples of
the kind of group pressure that encourages people to conform (peer pressure or
appeal to popularity) or the type that urges people to think that one’s own group
is better than others. For each example of group pressure, specify the possible
negative consequences. A couple of these are very difficult to Classify.
*1.
*3.
Ortega is deeply religious, attending church regularly and trying to abide
by church law and the Scriptures. He has never considered any other path.
He believes that laws should be passed that forbid people to shop on
Sunday and that designate Easter as a national holiday.
. John goes to a prestigious college where many students use illegal drugs.
Nearly everyone in John’s frat house uses them. So far, he hasn’t tried any,
but his frat brothers frequently ask if he wants some. And he has noticed
that he is rarely invited to any frat parties.
Anortheast college has invited a famous writer to be a guest speaker in the
campus-wide distinguished speaker series. She is an accomplished poet
and essayist. She is also a Marxist and favors more socialism in the United
States. During her speech she is shouted down by a small group of conservative
students and faculty.
. Yang Lei is a conservative columnist for one 0f the best conservative journals
in the country. But she yearns for greener pastures—namely, a regular
column for a weekly newsmagazine. She gets her dream job, though the
magazine does have liberal leanings. The first few columns she writes for
the magazine are a shock to her friends. Politically they are middle-of-theroad
or even suspiciously liberal.
. Alex is a fourth—grade teacher at a suburban elementary school in Tennes—
see. He is liked by students and teachers alike, and he has superior teaching
skills. He is also a homosexual. When a group of fundamentalist Christians
learn that Alex is gay, they pressure the school board to fire him.
. Sylvia writes a column for the university newspaper. In her last
installment, she argues that in a time of national crisis, the US Justice
Department should have the power to arrest and detain literally anyone
suspected of terrorism. Her arguments are well supported and pre—
sented with a tone of tolerance for those Who disagree with her. And
41
42
*7.
CHAPTER 2 Obstacles to Critical Thinking
most students do disagree—vehemently. Hundreds 0f letters to the
editor arrive at the newspaper, each one denouncing Sylvia and call—
ing her a fascist and a few names that could not be published. In Sylvia’s
next column, she apologizes for her statements, says that she made
serious errors, and declares that her statements should be Viewed as
hypothetical.
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Exercise 2.5
Read each 0f the following scenarios. Indicate whether it contains examples 0f
self—interested thinking 0r face-saving and, for each instance, specify the possible
negative consequences.
*1. Barbara thinks that she is a superior student with excellent writing and
*2.
math skills. She frequently says so to her friends and sometimes ridicules
other people’s grades and test scores. She predicts that her SAT scores
will be in the 21005. When she finally takes the test, she’s calm, alert, and
eager to get a fantastic score. Afterwards she says that she feels great.
Her scores come back in the 12005. She explains that the test doesn't
count because it's obviously scored wrong and, besides, She’s not a good
test taker.
City assemblyman Jackson is in a position t0 cast the deciding vote 0n two
proposals for the development of a new city park. Proposal 1 offers a parcel
0f land near the assemblyman’s house, which affords him a beautiful View.
Its drawbacks are that it costs twice as much as proposal 2 and cannot be
easily accessed by most 0f the public. Proposal 2 suggests a parcel of land
near the center 0f town. It is convenient to the public, has a more beautiful
setting, and will raise property values in the area. Assemblyman Jackson
says that the obvious best choice is proposal 1.
Antonio is a college student who responds predictably t0 his scores 0n
tests. If the score is high, he remarks that he hardly studied at all and that
his score ranks among the highest in the class. If the scores are 10w, he says
that the instructor grades unfairly, that the test was flawed, and that he
intends to protest his grade t0 the grade-review committee.
. Sheila is a bright medical scientist. For years she has been working on
a series 0f Clinical studies that could establish her favorite medical
hypothesis—that high doses 0f Vitamin E can cure skin cancer. Each study
in the series has added more evidence suggesting that the hypothesis is
probably true. The last study in the series is crucial. It is a much larger
study than the others, and it will confirm or invalidate the usefulness of
vitamin E for skin cancer. When the study is completed, she examines the
SeIf-Assessment Quiz
data. Instead of confirming her hypothesis, the study suggests not only
that her pet idea is unfounded but also that the doses of vitamin E used
are toxic, causing terrible side effects in patients. She concludes, though,
that the study results do not disconfirm her hypothesis but are merely
inconclusive.
5. David and Max are in a heated debate about the theory 0f biological evolution.
David rejects the theory in favor 0f creationism, which says that
life 0n Earth was created or facilitated by a supreme intelligence. Max
rejects creationism in favor 0f evolution. David marshals an abundance 0f
facts that seem to prove his case. In addition, he alleges that evolution is
false because there are huge gaps in the fossil record suggesting that there
has never been a smooth, tidy progression of species from earlier forms
t0 later forms. Max has no answer for this fossil-record gap argument and
looks exasperated. David is about t0 declare Victory when Max suddenly
begins to quote the research findings 0f reputable biologists showing that
there really are no gaps. After the debate some of Max’s friends quietly
congratulate him for being clever enough t0 quote research findings that
are fictitious.
._§9_|I:A§_s_9_s_§m_e_n!_9_lai_z. _______________________________________________________
Answers appear in ”Answers to Self-Assessment Quizzes” in Appendix B.
1. According t0 the definition 0f critical thinking given in the text, what factors
must be present for critical thinking t0 be realized?
2. From the standpoint 0f critical thinking, what event signals that we have
allowed our bias in favor of ourselves to go too far?
3. According to the text, how might selective attention affect our thinking
When we are examining evidence for 0r against a claim?
4. According to the text, what is probably the most powerful group pressure
of all?
5. According t0 the text, what is a worldview?
6. What kind of doubt is involved in the acquisition of knowledge?
7. According to the text, why is it important t0 100k for opposing evidence
when evaluating Claims?
Read each of the following scenarios. Indicate whether it contains examples of
self—interested thinking, face-saving, or both.
8. Edgar predicts that Horace Windblower will win the 2016 presidential
election. In fact, he bets money on it and brags that he always predicts the
winners. Windblower loses by the widest margin in US history. At first,
44 CHAPTER 2 Obstacles to CriticalThinking
Edgar refuses to pay the bet but finally relents. He Claims that the election
was rigged from the very beginning.
9. Lois strongly believes in UFO abductions—people being kidnapped by
space aliens. She says that she has absolute proof: a small piece of metal
that she says is ”not of this earth” and a cut on her shin that she says came
from alien probes. However, several metallurgists in the area say that the
piece of metal is ordinary aluminum. And her daughter reminds her that
she got the cut on her shin when she ran into a desk drawer. Lois doesn’t
say anything else about her ”evidence,” and she asserts that the real proof
is in the skies in the form of alien spacecraft.
1o. One day Julie and Jill hear their instructor read a list of arguments for
and against abortion. Half the arguments are pro, and half con. Julie is on
the pro side, Jill on the con side. Later when they discuss the abortion arguments,
they recall the facts differently. Julie remembers that most of the
arguments were for abortion rights. Jill remembers only the arguments
against abortion and can’t recall any pro arguments.
Specify whether the following passages are examples of face-saving, self—serving,
or group—pressure thinking, 0r a combination of these.
1 1 . The world would be better off if everything were run by Republicans.
12. Everyone believes in affirmative action. That fact alone ought to convince
you to do the same.
13. Look, every student I know cheats on exams once in a while. So why not
you? Why do you have to be such a Boy Scout?
14. People should d0 whatever makes them happy.
15. Congressman Hornblower: Anyone who doesn’t believe in God shouldn’t
have a say in how this nation is run. I don’t think that atheists should even
be citizens.
16. Yes, I smoked marijuana in college, but I didn’t inhale.
17. In the United States about 75 percent of the population has some kind
of religious belief or denominational affiliation. In light of this, how
can you say you’re an unbeliever? If you’re an unbeliever, you’re
un-American.
Read each of the following statements and indicate whether it is an example of
the subjectivist fallacy or social relativism.
18. This may not be your truth, but it’s my truth.
19. It’s true for me that killing innocent civilians is morally wrong. It may not
be true for you.
20. Chinese diplomat: My country cannot be judged by some universal standard.
It must be judged by its own unique criteria and norms.
Writing Assignments
._WEi!in.9__A§_s_i_9_nme_n_t_s_ ________________________________________________________
Select an issue from the following list and write a three-page paper defending a
statement pertaining to the issue. Follow the procedure discussed in chapter 12
for identifying a thesis and an appropriate argument t0 defend it.
0 Are the media biased?
0 Should a single corporation be allowed to own as many media outlets
(newspapers, radio and TV stations, publishers, etc.) as it wants?
0 Should the US government be allowed to arrest and indefinitely imprison
without trial any American citizen Who is suspected of terrorism?
0 Should immigrants to the United States ever be banned simply because of
their religion?
0 Should racial profilingbe used to do security screening of airline passengers?