San José State University Writing Center
www.sjsu.edu/writingcenter
Written by Amy Russo
Abstracts
Abstracts provide a summary and preview of an academic work, such an article, research proposal, or
conference presentation. Abstracts are the first part of an article that readers will see: They set
expectations and help readers understand what will come next. All abstracts used in this handout are
from published articles from biology, business, linguistics, nursing, and neuroscience.
Why are abstracts important?
Abstracts are used in a variety of academic contexts. First, readers use them to decide if an article
belongs in their research and warrants being read completely. Second, many professional and research
conferences require presenters to submit an abstract before being accepted. Third, writers use abstracts
in their research papers and often in applications for funding opportunities.
What is the basic structure of abstracts?
Abstracts vary some by discipline, but within a discipline, they often follow predictable patterns. Some
general observations can be made. Abstracts are usually 100 to 300 words long. They use cited
references sparingly. They are meant to standalone and be understood without the larger work. Each
sentence has a particular job or function.
Hyland (2007) introduces a five-part model he observed across academic articles. Abstracts commonly
have these parts: introduction, purpose, method, result, and conclusion. Each part has a different
communicative goal or specific function. Most abstracts examined had purpose, method, and result with
about half including a clear introduction and conclusion.
Table 1: Model of Abstract (Adapted from Hyland, 2007)
Part Function Key Phrase Example
1 Introduction
Establishes paper’s context and
motivates the research or discussion
“Within the framework of genre analysis”
“This study builds on earlier research …”
2 Purpose
Indicates purpose or thesis, outlines
the aim behind the paper
“This study examines…” “The aim of this
study is…” “This study addresses a gap”
3 Method
Provides information on design,
procedures, data analysis, etc.
“A quantities analysis was used…”
4 Result Indicates results and key findings “The results show that…”
5 Conclusion
Points to applications or wider
implications and interpretation scope
“The results confirm previous studies that…”
Abstracts, Spring 2020. 1 of 7
Table 2: Biology abstract utilizing five parts (labeled).
[Introduction] In many forest ecosystems, green leaf deposition (greenfall) constitutes an
enrichment over background levels of litterfall nutrients and may therefore influence key ecosystem
processes. [Purpose] This study examined the litter quality and decomposition rates of green leaves
compared to senescent litterfall for four dominant tree species (Dacryodes excelsa, Manilkara bidentata,
Guarea guidonia, and Cecropia schreberiana) in a lower montane rain forest at El Verde Field Station,
Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. [Method] Green leaves from the canopy and freshly senesced
leaves from the forest floor were analyzed for carbon, nitrogen, and fiber and placed in litterbags in the
field for up to 16 weeks. [Result] Green leaves displayed significantly higher rates of decompositions than
did senescent litter among all four species. [Result] Green leaves also had significantly higher nitrogen
concentrations and lower lignin to nitrogen ratios compared to senescent leaves. [Conclusion] These results
suggest that greenfall may have a major influence on decay processes and nutrient cycling in forests that
experience large-scale green foliage removal.
Fonte and Schowalter, “Decomposition of Greenfall vs. Senescent Foliage in a Tropical Forest Ecosystem
in Puerto Rico,” bioTROPICA, 2004.
What are examples of key phrases from Table 2 that help identify each part?
Part Function Key Phrase Example
1 Introduction
Establishes paper’s context and
motivates the research or discussion
“influence key…processes”
2 Purpose
Indicates purpose or thesis, outlines
the aim behind the paper
“This study examined”
3 Method
Provides information on design,
procedures, data analysis, etc.
“were analyzed”
4 Result Indicates results and key findings
“displayed significantly higher
rates”
5 Conclusion
Points to applications or wider
implications and interpretation scope
“These results suggest … may
have major influence on …”
Abstracts, Spring 2020. 2 of 7
	
Table 3: Business abstract utilizing four parts (labeled).
[Introduction] E-commerce is undergoing an evolution through the adoption of Web 2.0 capabilities
to enhance customer participation and achieve greater economic value. [Purpose] This new phenomenon is
commonly referred to as social commerce; however, it has not yet been fully understood. [Purpose] In
addition to the lack of a stable and agreed-upon definition, there is little research on social commerce and no
significant research dedicated to the design of social commerce platforms. [Method] This study offers
literature review to explain the concept of social commerce, tracks its nascent state-of-the-art, and discusses
relevant design features as they relate to e-commerce and Web 2.0. [Method] We propose a new model and
a set of principles for guiding social commerce design. [Method] We also apply the model and guidelines to
two leading social commerce platforms, Amazon and Starbucks on Facebook. [Result] The findings
indicate that, for any social commerce website, it is critical to achieve a minimum set of social commerce
design features. [Result] These design features must cover all the layers of the proposed model, including
the individual, conversation, community and commerce levels.
~Huang and Benyoucef, “From e-commerce to social commerce: A close look at design features,”
Electronic Commerce Research and Application, 12(4) 2013.
What are examples of key phrases from Table 3 that help identify each part?
Part Function Key Phrase Example
1 Introduction
Establishes paper’s context and
motivates the research or discussion
“… is undergoing an evolution…”
2 Purpose
Indicates purpose or thesis, outlines the
aim behind the paper
“…has not yet been fully understood”
“… is little research on…”
3 Method
Provides information on design,
procedures, data analysis, etc.
“This study offers…, tracks… and
discusses…” “apply the model and
guidelines to…”
4 Result Indicates results and key findings
“The findings indicate…”
“….it is critical…”
5 Conclusion
Points to applications or wider
implications and interpretation scope
Abstracts, Spring 2020. 3 of 7
Activity 1: Learn About Abstracts in Your Field
Navigate to Google Scholar or your library database. Find several articles on a high interest topic for
your chosen field (e.g., context collapse for linguistics or Alzheimer’s treatment for medicine). Consider
choosing well-known journals (e.g., Nature or SIGGRAPH) or articles that have been cited many times.
Open several articles and review their abstracts. Compare them to Hyland’s model. What is similar?
What is different? What patterns seem most common? What is the average length?
Activity 2: Label Abstract Parts
Using Hyland’s Model (introduction, purpose, method, result, and conclusion), label each sentence’s
function in the three abstracts samples. Remember not all abstracts have all five parts, and some have
multiple sentences that have the same function, e.g., two purpose or result sentences. The sample
answer key is on page seven.
Sample 1: Linguistic Abstract
[A. ____________ ] Social media technologies collapse multiple audiences into single
contexts, making it difficult for people to use the same techniques online that they do to handle
multiplicity in face-to-face conversation. [B. ____________ ] This article investigates how content
producers navigate ‘imagined audiences’ on Twitter. [C. ____________ ] We talked with
participants who have different types of followings to understand their techniques, including
targeting different audiences, concealing subjects, and maintaining authenticity. [D. ____________ ]
Some techniques of audience management resemble the practices of ‘micro-celebrity’ and personal
branding, both strategic self-commodification. [E. ____________ ] Our model of the networked
audience assumes a many-to-many communication through which individuals conceptualize an
imagined audience evoked through their tweets.
Marwick and Boyd, “I tweet honestly, I tweet Passionately: Twitter Users, Context Collapse, and the
Imagined Audience,” New Media & Society, 13(1) 2011.
Abstracts, Spring 2020. 4 of 7
Using samples 1, 2, and 3, identify key phrases and words used to singal the various
Sample 2: Nursing Abstract
[A. ____________ ] High rates of mental health problems in adolescents have been well documented;
less is known about elementary school children in disadvantaged communities. [B. ____________ ] We
examined emotional and behavioral health needs in 202 third and fourth graders enrolled in a charter school
in a largely Hispanic community. [C. ____________ ] The child-reported Revised Child Anxiety and
Depression Scale-25 and Teacher’s Report Form were used to evaluate mental health needs as perceived by
these children and their teachers. [D. ____________ ] The prevalence of teacher-reported depression and
child self-reported anxiety was 7.0% and 6.67%, respectively. [E. ____________ ] Living in a single parent
household was found to be a specific risk factor in that those children had higher rates of emotional and
behavioral problems than children living with both parents. [F. ____________ ] Evidence of higher
depression and anxiety identified in this sample compared to national representative data suggests the need
for development of culturally sensitive early prevention and intervention in this underserved community.
Guo, Rousseau, and Hsu, “Emotional and Behavioral Health Needs in Elementary School Students in an
Underserved Hispanic Community,” The Journal of School Nursing, 35(2) 2019.
Sample 3: Neuroscience Abstract
[A. ____________ ] Neural plasticity, the ability of neurons to change their properties in response to
experiences, underpins the nervous system’s capacity to form memories and actuate behaviors.
[B . ____________ ] How different plasticity mechanisms act together in vivo and at a cellular level to
transform sensory information into behavior is not well understood. [C. ____________ ] We show that in
Caenorhabditis elegans two plasticity mechanisms-sensory adaptation and presynaptic plasticity-act within a
single cell to encode thermosensory information and actuate a temperature preference memory.
[D. ____________ ] Sensory adaptation adjusts the temperature range of the sensory neuron (called AFD) to
optimize detection of temperature fluctuations associated with migration. [E. ____________ ] Presynaptic
plasticity in AFD is regulated by the conserved kinase nPKCε and transforms thermosensory information into
a behavioral preference. [F. ____________ ] Bypassing AFD presynaptic plasticity predictably changes
learned behavioral preferences without affecting sensory responses. [G. ____________ ] Our findings indicate
that two distinct neuroplasticity mechanisms function together through a single-cell logic system to enact
thermotactic behavior.
Hawk et al, “Integration of Plasticity Mechanisms within a Single Sensory Neuron of C. elegans Actuates a
Memory,” Neuron, 97(2), 2018.
Abstracts, Spring 2020. 5 of 7
Activity 3: Identify Sample Phrases
Reread the three abstract samples. Identify phrase examples that signal what function a sentence is
doing. From the three abstracts, find at least two examples for each part. You can look at page 2 and 3
for models.
Part Function Key Phrase Example
1 Introduction
Establishes
paper’s context
and motivates the
research or
discussion
2 Purpose
Indicates purpose
or thesis, outlines
the aim behind the
paper
3 Method
Provides
information on
design,
procedures, data
analysis, etc.
4 Result
Indicates results
and key findings
5 Conclusion
Points to
applications or
wider implications
and interpretation
scope
Abstracts, Spring 2020. 6 of 7
Activity 2: Sample Answer Key
Abstract Sample 1: A) Introduction, B) Purpose, C) Method, D) Result, E) Conclusion
Abstract Sample 2: A) Introduction/Purpose (combined), B) Method, C) Method, D) Result, E) Result,
F) Conclusion
Abstract Sample 3: A) Introduction, B) Purpose, C) Result, D) Result, E) Result, F) Result,
G) Conclusion
Activity 3: Sample Answer Key
Part Function Key Phrase Example
1 Introduction
Establishes paper’s
context and motivates
the research or
discussion
“… have been well documented; less is known…”
“… is not well understood…”
2 Purpose
Indicates purpose or
thesis, outlines the aim
behind the paper
“This article investigates how…”
“…less is known about…”
3 Method
Provides information on
design, procedures, data
analysis, etc.
“We talked to participants…”
“Child Anxiety and Depression Scale-25 and Teacher
Report Forms were used to evaluate ….”
4 Result
Indicates results and key
findings
“Some techniques … resemble the practices…”
“We show that…”
“…was found to be a specific risk factor”
5 Conclusion
Points to applications or
wider implications and
interpretation scope
“Our findings indicate that …”
“data suggests…”
References
Hyland, Ken. Disciplinary Discourses: Social Interactions in Academic Writing. London, UK:
Longman, 2007.
Abstracts, Spring 2020. 7 of 7