Self- and peer-rated character strengths: How do they relate to satisfaction with life and
orientations to happiness?
Claudia Buschor, René T. Proyer and Willibald Ruch*
Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/7, Zurich 8050, Switzerland
(Received 18 June 2012; final version received 6 December 2012)
This paper addresses the question as to whether previously reported findings on a positive relation between character
strengths, satisfaction with life, and orientations to happiness (OTH) can be replicated for peer ratings of character
strengths. A sample of 334 Swiss adults completed questionnaires and collected informant ratings by 634 peers. Selfand
peer ratings converged well and suggest that, primarily: the strengths of hope, zest, and curiosity – but also gratitude
and love – play key roles in the interplay of strengths and satisfaction with life. Peer ratings of strengths also
related positively with the endorsement of a pleasurable, engaged, and meaningful life. Further analyses show that
the OTH predict satisfaction with life beyond self- and peer-rated character strengths. There, the engaged life (i.e.
endorsement of flow) was most relevant. This study supports earlier findings that argue for an important role of character
strengths when describing the well-being of a person.
Keywords: character strengths; life satisfaction; self- and peer-ratings; VIA; well-being
The question of how individuals can achieve enduring
happiness has been an important topic of discussion from
the time of ancient philosophers to today’s empirical
researchers of various disciplines. Various aspects of
well-being, such as life satisfaction, have been studied in
relation to demographics, health issues, social contact,
activity, personality and many other variables. Recently,
the idea that traits valued as morally positive (strengths
of character) are robustly related to satisfaction with life
has gained considerable attention in the literature and
encourages further research along these lines.
Character strengths and life satisfaction
Virtues and character have become important topics of
research in positive psychology (Dahlsgaard, Peterson, &
Seligman, 2005). One influential contribution to this area
is Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) Values in Action
(VIA) classification of character strengths and virtues.
With regard to individual differences, the authors developed
a hierarchy of 24 specific strengths organized under
six universal virtues (i.e. wisdom and knowledge, courage,
humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence).
This classification identifies components of good character
and enables systematic research on human strengths.
The idea is that pursuing the strengths enables the practice
of a virtue (e.g. living with an appreciation of beauty
and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, and religiousness
enables transcendence). Peterson, Park, and Seligman
(2005a) authored a questionnaire for the assessment of
the 24 strengths; i.e. the Values in Action Inventory of
Strengths (VIA-IS). Ever since its publication, it has
been used widely in research and its psychometric properties
are well established (e.g. Park, Peterson, & Seligman
2006; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Peterson, Park,
Pole, D’Andrea, & Seligman, 2008).
There is strong empirical evidence for the notion that
character strengths are positively related to life satisfaction
in adolescents and adults (e.g. Brdar, Anić, &
Rijavec, 2011; Gander, Proyer, Ruch, & Wyss, 2012;
Khumalo, Wissing, & Themane, 2008; Littman-Ovadia
& Lavy, 2012; Park & Peterson, 2006a,b; Park,
Peterson, & Seligman, 2004a,b; Peterson, Ruch, Beermann,
Park, & Seligman, 2007; Proyer, Gander, Wyss,
& Ruch, 2011; Ruch, Huber, Beermann, & Proyer,
2007; Ruch, Proyer, & Weber, 2010a,b; Ruch et al.,
2010; Ruch, Weber, Park, & Peterson, in press). A major
finding among these studies, which have been conducted
in multiple samples and cultures, is that the character
strengths of curiosity, gratitude, hope, love, and zest are
consistently the strengths most highly correlated with life
satisfaction. It should be noted, however, that some of
the correlation coefficients reported in these studies
appear to be almost unrealistically high. For example,
the highest correlations found for a strength were
typically between 0.50 and 0.60 making strengths appear
*Corresponding author. Email: w.ruch@psychologie.uzh.ch
The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2013
Vol. 8, No. 2, 116–127, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.758305
Ó 2013 Taylor & Francis
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to be the prime predictor of life satisfaction and, thus,
explaining 30% of the variance in happiness. As a
comparison, variables, such as the Big Five personality
factors and overall subjective well-being, yielded coefficients
between À0.22 (Neuroticism) and 0.21 (Conscientiousness;
weighted correlation coefficients from the
meta-analysis by DeNeve & Cooper, 1998). Thus, character
strengths and life satisfaction might share some
unwanted variance and artificially inflate the correlation
coefficients. When Park, Peterson, and Seligman (2004b)
correlated rank-ordered strengths and satisfaction with
life, the highest correlating strengths (i.e. hope) yielded
coefficients of an absolute size between 0.31 and 0.45;
i.e. they were approximately 15% lower on average.
Likewise, some of the strengths, such as modesty, creativity,
and appreciation of beauty, typically yielded low
coefficients of around 0.10. Nevertheless, it seems to be
widely accepted that the direct contribution of strengths
to life satisfaction differs from strength to strength (see
Peterson et al., 2007). Additionally, a recent experimental
study showed that interventions targeted at strengths
that typically correlate highly with life satisfaction led to
an increase in well-being in comparison with a group
that trained strengths that typically correlate low with
life satisfaction and a wait-list group (Proyer, Ruch, &
Buschor, in press). This can be seen as preliminary
evidence that there also seems to be a causal relation
between an increase in some strengths and a gain in life
satisfaction.
It should be noted that none of the previously mentioned
studies in relation between character strengths and
life satisfaction have used ratings from knowledgeable
informants on strengths in adults and compared them
with the results derived from self-ratings. It is presently
unknown whether there is a bias in the data based on
self-ratings of the subjects’ own strengths with regard to
their relation with life satisfaction. An ideal study would
be one that utilized self- and peer ratings of character
strengths and compared their relation to satisfaction with
life. If it happened to be that the results converge well, it
could be assumed that some strengths might be more relevant
to well-being than others. However, satisfaction
with life is not the only criterion for a good life and subjective
well-being (see also Diener, 1994).
Orientations to happiness and satisfaction with life
Based on a review of the literature ranging from ancient
philosophers to modern psychologists, Peterson, Park
and Seligman (2005b; based on Seligman, 2002)
describe three ways of obtaining happiness, i.e. pleasure,
engagement, and meaning. The central assumption for
the life of pleasure is that people experience happiness
by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain (Peterson
et al., 2005b). The engaged life evolved from the concept
of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), which describes a
psychological state that accompanies highly engaging
activities. This ‘optimal experience’ was found to be
associated with higher well-being (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi
& LeFevre, 1989). The third way of obtaining happiness
is by way of living the life of meaning, which is based
on the concept of eudemonia. Here, people achieve happiness
by identifying their virtues, cultivating them, and
living in accordance with them (Seligman, 2002).
Peterson et al. (2005b) developed the OTH Scale.
This is an 18-item measurement for the subjective
assessment of these three orientations. Various studies
underline its good psychometric properties and validity
(e.g. Chen, 2010; Park, Peterson, & Ruch, 2009; Peterson
et al., 2007; Proyer, Annen, Eggimann, Schneider, &
Ruch, 2012; Proyer, Ruch, & Chen, 2012; Ruch, Harzer,
Proyer, Park, & Peterson, 2010; Schueller & Seligman,
2010; Vella-Brodrick, Park, & Peterson, 2009). One can
conclude that each of these orientations individually predicts
life satisfaction and that they correlate with each
other without being interchangeable. People living a ‘full
life’ (i.e. high expressions in all three domains) yield the
highest scores in life satisfaction. Peterson et al. (2007)
used the VIA-IS and the OTH together and concluded
that ‘[…] those strengths of character most associated
with life satisfaction were also associated with all three
orientations to happiness’ (p. 153) and ‘[…] although the
OTH that we measured partly mediated the associations
between strengths of character and life satisfaction, they
did not fully explain them’ (p. 149). Giannopulos and
Vella-Brodrick (2011) demonstrated that positive interventions
fostering the three orientations led to improved
well-being. This indicates that there is a positive relation
between self-ratings of character strengths and well-being
measures.
Self- and peer-rated character strengths
Authors working previously with the VIA-IS were aware
of problems that occur when using subjective measures.
Self-reports can be distorted for many reasons (e.g.
socially desirable answers, answer tendencies, response
styles, etc.). Thus, the question arises as to whether the
method itself may be biased – and whether this has an
impact on the interpretation of the findings. In other
words, when only one method is used, ‘[…] one has no
way of distinguishing trait variance from unwanted
method variance’ (Campbell & Fiske, 1959, p. 102).
Also, one might argue that self-ratings in morally positively
valued traits are more prone to socially desirable
answers than traits that are not morally connoted. Other
authors note that limitations of self-report instruments
are even more pronounced when performing correlational
studies ‘[…] it can be argued that shared artifacts of
defensiveness, extreme responding, or acquiescence
account for the associations’ (McCrae, 1982, p. 294).
A number of different strategies were employed to
avoid potential pitfalls when working with the VIA-IS.
For example, using rank-ordered strengths instead of raw
The Journal of Positive Psychology 117
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scores, or testing for correlations of the VIA-IS with
social desirability scales (e.g. Park et al., 2004b; Proyer
et al., 2011; Ruch et al., 2010). While these strategies
can be useful for addressing some of the problems, Ruch
et al. (2010) also suggested for the inclusion of peer ratings
when working in this area. This follows a claim to
use multi-method approaches in research (e.g. Eid &
Diener, 2006). The convergence between self- and peerrated
VIA-strengths has already been tested and the correlation
coefficients yielded a median of 0.40 and ranged
between 0.26 (honesty) and 0.69 (religiousness; Ruch
et al., 2010). This suggests that both research techniques
converge well and in the expected range for personality
measures (see Connolly, Kavanagh, & Viswesvaran,
2007). Nevertheless, one can argue that only between 7
and 49% of the variance in the self-report of strengths is
accounted for by the peer-rated strengths. In other words,
between 51 and 93% of the variance (minus the variance
due to measurement error in both scales) may be due to
method variance and other factors.
Aims of the present study
This study addresses the relation between self- and peerreported
strengths of character and life satisfaction and
three OTH. Its main aim was threefold. First, correlations
between self-reports of character strengths and life satisfaction
were computed. This was aimed at replicating
prior findings; the strengths of zest, hope, love, gratitude,
and curiosity were expected to demonstrate the numerically
highest correlation coefficients with life satisfaction
and the three OTH (e.g. Park et al., 2004b; Peterson
et al., 2007). Second, the relationship of peer-rated character
strengths with life satisfaction and the three OTH
were tested. Overall, we expected peer-rated strengths to
yield a similar correlation pattern as the one reported in
earlier studies using self-ratings (i.e. highest relations of
hope, zest, curiosity gratitude, and love with life satisfaction
and positive relations to the pleasurable, engaged,
and meaningful life) – yet with coefficients of smaller
size. Further, we expected that the coefficients are more
similar in strengths where self- and peer-assessed
strengths converge better (e.g. religiousness) compared
to those with worse convergences (e.g. honesty). Overall,
the rank order of size of correlations was expected to
converge well for self- and peer-assessed strengths.
Third, in an extension to findings by Peterson et al.
(2007), we tested whether the OTH contribute to
satisfaction with life when its relation to character
strengths (VIA-IS or VIA-IS peer) was controlled for.
We expected that, in a regression analysis, the VIA-IS
would explain most of the variance, but that an additional,
smaller, portion of life satisfaction was accounted
for by the OTH. Also, peer-rated character strengths
were expected to contribute to the prediction of life
satisfaction.
Method
Research participants
The self-rating sample consisted of 334 adults (n = 121
males, n = 213 females) from 18 to 77 years (M = 40.48,
SD = 15.62), who registered for a positive psychology
intervention program at the institution of the investigators.
They were from the Zurich in the German-speaking
part of Switzerland. The largest portion (40.7%) had
completed a vocational education, and further, 24.9%
had a degree from a college of higher education and
23.4% held a university degree.
The peer-rating sample consisted of 636 raters
(n = 236 males and n = 387 females, 13 raters did not
indicate their gender) with an age range from 18 to 81
(M = 44.17, SD = 14.19). Forty percent completed a vocational
education, 24.3% degree from a college of higher
education, and 22.8% held a degree from university.
Measures
The VIA-IS (Peterson et al., 2005a) consists of 240
items (10 per scale) and measures the 24 strengths of the
VIA-classification. It utilizes a five-point Likert-style
answer scale (1 = ‘very much unlike me’ to 5 = ‘very
much like me’). A sample item is ‘I have lots of energy’
(zest). Ruch et al. (2010) reported that the German adaptation
of the scale yielded highly comparable psychometric
properties compared to the US form. For example,
the median of reliability coefficients (Cronbach alpha)
was 0.77, the test–retest correlation across nine months
was 0.73, and self- and peer ratings converged in the
expected range (median = 0.40). The VIA-IS (in its English
and German form as used in the present study) has
been used in a broad variety of studies that provide further
support for its reliability and validity (e.g. Güsewell
& Ruch, 2012; Harzer & Ruch, in press; Ma et al.,
2008; Müller & Ruch, 2011; Park et al., 2006; Peterson
& Seligman, 2004; Proyer et al., 2011). The German
VIA-IS has a robust five-factor structure; the factors are
labeled (a) strengths of restraint; (b) intellectual
strengths; (c) interpersonal strengths; (d) emotional
strengths; and (e) theological strengths. Additionally, a
two-factor solution is well replicable if using ipsative
data; i.e. (a) strengths of the heart vs. mind and (b)
strengths focusing on self vs. on others. These factors
were found for the standard form VIA-IS and also for a
peer rating form in Ruch et al. (2010; see also Güsewell
& Ruch, 2012; Proyer, & Ruch, 2011). Alpha coefficients
for all instruments used in this study are given in
Table 1.
The VIA-IS peer rating form (VIA-IS peer; Ruch
et al., 2010) consists of the same 240 items as the
VIA-IS only rephrased into the third person singular (e.
g. ‘He/she has lots of energy’; zest). Answers are given
on a five-point Likert-scale (from 1 = ‘very much unlike
him/her’ to 5 = ‘very much like him/her’). In the Ruch
118 C. Buschor et al.
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics, reliabilities, and correlations among self- and peer-rated character strengths and life satisfaction, and OTH (controlled for age, gender, and educational
level).
Self-rated character strengths Peer-rated character strengths
Scales M SD α SWL SWLR LP LE LM M SD α SWL LP LE LM
Hope 3.45 0.56 0.77 0.53⁄⁄
0.41⁄⁄
0.37⁄⁄
0.44⁄⁄
0.31⁄⁄
3.50 0.57 0.81 0.37⁄⁄
0.27⁄⁄
0.21⁄⁄
0.14⁄⁄
Zest 3.48 0.52 0.75 0.45⁄⁄
0.29⁄⁄
0.43⁄⁄
0.53⁄⁄
0.24⁄⁄
3.62 0.54 0.80 0.30⁄⁄
0.23⁄⁄
0.29⁄⁄
0.12⁄
Love 3.68 0.52 0.74 0.44⁄⁄
0.21⁄⁄
0.28⁄⁄
0.31⁄⁄
0.29⁄⁄
3.81 0.52 0.78 0.18⁄⁄
0.14⁄⁄
0.00 0.04
Curiosity 3.96 0.50 0.80 0.38⁄⁄
0.24⁄⁄
0.32⁄⁄
0.42⁄⁄
0.29⁄⁄
3.97 0.51 0.82 0.24⁄⁄
0.16⁄⁄
0.24⁄⁄
0.16⁄⁄
Gratitude 3.69 0.50 0.79 0.37⁄⁄
0.19⁄
0.30⁄⁄
0.29⁄⁄
0.37⁄⁄
3.58 0.51 0.81 0.16⁄⁄
0.09 0.03 0.13⁄
Perspective 3.48 0.48 0.77 0.32⁄⁄
0.06 0.22⁄⁄
0.32⁄⁄
0.39⁄⁄
3.64 0.50 0.80 0.13⁄
0.10 0.02 0.02
Humor 3.53 0.56 0.84 0.31⁄⁄
0.10 0.26⁄⁄
0.39⁄⁄
0.29⁄⁄
3.59 0.59 0.87 0.19⁄⁄
0.22⁄⁄
0.15⁄⁄
0.04
Bravery 3.48 0.50 0.75 0.31⁄⁄
0.11⁄
0.43⁄⁄
0.27⁄⁄
0.28⁄⁄
3.67 0.49 0.74 0.10 0.16⁄⁄
0.05 0.03
Persistence 3.31 0.55 0.81 0.26⁄⁄
0.03 0.17⁄⁄
0.49⁄⁄
0.13⁄
3.70 0.59 0.86 0.21⁄⁄
0.03 0.19⁄⁄
À0.05
Social Intelligence 3.59 0.46 0.75 0.26⁄⁄
À0.04 0.34⁄⁄
0.27⁄⁄
0.28⁄⁄
3.66 0.49 0.77 0.08 0.16⁄⁄
À0.02 0.03
Self-regulation 3.20 0.56 0.73 0.25⁄⁄
À0.02 0.07 0.27⁄⁄
0.18⁄⁄
3.41 0.59 0.78 0.14⁄⁄
0.02 0.07 0.02
Teamwork 3.55 0.45 0.70 0.22⁄⁄
À0.10 0.16⁄⁄
0.18⁄⁄
0.22⁄⁄
3.64 0.49 0.78 0.07 0.05 À0.11⁄
0.01
Forgiveness 3.52 0.55 0.82 0.19⁄⁄
À0.06 0.10 0.15⁄⁄
0.16⁄⁄
3.53 0.52 0.80 0.04 0.05 À0.03 0.03
Honesty 3.72 0.40 0.65 0.17⁄⁄
À0.14⁄⁄
0.18⁄⁄
0.36⁄⁄
0.15⁄⁄
3.99 0.45 0.73 0.08 À0.01 À0.03 À0.07
Leadership 3.54 0.45 0.74 0.17⁄⁄
À0.15⁄⁄
0.21⁄⁄
0.31⁄⁄
0.32⁄⁄
3.61 0.52 0.83 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.13⁄
Religiousness 2.92 0.80 0.88 0.16⁄⁄
0.05 0.01 0.18⁄⁄
0.58⁄⁄
3.01 0.75 0.88 0.06 À0.11⁄
0.04 0.30⁄⁄
Kindness 3.80 0.44 0.70 0.15⁄⁄
À0.14⁄⁄
0.09 0.25⁄⁄
0.17⁄⁄
3.87 0.49 0.77 0.06 À0.06 À0.06 À0.01
Prudence 3.28 0.49 0.68 0.15⁄⁄
À0.12⁄
0.19⁄⁄
0.18⁄⁄
0.27⁄⁄
3.54 0.54 0.77 0.11⁄
0.11⁄
0.02 0.02
Love of learning 3.81 0.57 0.83 0.14⁄⁄
À0.06 0.19⁄⁄
0.35⁄⁄
0.30⁄⁄
3.86 0.61 0.84 0.10 0.14⁄⁄
0.19⁄⁄
0.14⁄⁄
Fairness 3.89 0.43 0.74 0.13⁄
À0.15⁄⁄
0.14⁄⁄
0.24⁄⁄
0.26⁄⁄
3.82 0.51 0.82 0.01 0.02 À0.07 0.04
Creativity 3.53 0.60 0.87 0.12⁄
À0.05 0.24⁄⁄
0.33⁄⁄
0.31⁄⁄
3.60 0.61 0.87 0.09 0.15⁄⁄
0.24⁄⁄
0.11⁄
Open-mindedness 3.74 0.44 0.76 0.10 À0.15⁄⁄
0.21⁄⁄
0.26⁄⁄
0.24⁄⁄
3.78 0.55 0.87 0.02 0.07 0.01 À0.04
Beauty 3.55 0.51 0.72 0.01 À0.21⁄⁄
À0.07 0.01 0.08 3.44 0.58 0.80 À0.03 À0.11⁄
À0.13⁄
À0.01
Modesty 3.20 0.53 0.75 0.01 À0.26⁄⁄
0.29⁄⁄
0.23⁄⁄
0.27⁄⁄
3.41 0.61 0.81 À0.04 0.07 0.06 0.09
MD 3.53 0.51 0.75 0.21 À0.05 0.21 0.28 0.28 3.63 0.53 0.81 0.10 0.10 0.04 0.04
SWL 4.48 1.17 0.87 – – 0.27⁄⁄
0.37⁄⁄
0.24⁄⁄
– – – – – – –
LP 3.15 0.70 0.73 – – – 0.38⁄⁄
0.12⁄
– – – – – – –
LE 2.90 0.61 0.61 – – – – 0.33⁄⁄
– – – – – – –
LM 2.98 0.76 0.73 – – – – – – – – – – – –
Notes: N = 325–334 for self-reports. N = 636 for peer reports (for 32 participants only one rating entered the analysis). α = Cronbach’s alpha. SWL= Satisfaction with Life Scale.
SWLR = Satisfaction with Life Scale, Pearson correlations between Satisfaction with Life Scale and rank-ordered self-rated character strengths. LP= Life of Pleasure; LE = Life of
Engagement; LM = Life of Meaning.
⁄
p < 0.05. ⁄⁄
p < 0.01.
TheJournalofPositivePsychology119
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et al. (2010) study, the VIA-IS peer yielded satisfactory
reliability coefficients (i.e. median of alpha coefficients
= 0.81) and had a robust factor structure similar to
the one of the VIA-IS (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).
The OTH Scale (Peterson et al., 2005b) assesses
three routes to happiness; i.e. the life of pleasure (e.g.
‘Life is too short to postpone the pleasures it can provide’),
life of engagement (‘I am always very absorbed
in what I do’), and life of meaning (‘I have a responsibility
to make the world a better place’). The OTH
consists of 18 items (six per scale). Answers are given
on a five-point scale (1 = ‘very much unlike me’ to
5 = ‘very much like me’). In the present study, the
German adaptation (Ruch et al., 2010) has been used.
The German language OTH, which has a robust threefactor
structure comparable to the US version, is reliable
(the mean of Cronbach’s alpha coefficients across
two samples was 0.71) and stable (i.e. a mean test–retest
correlation of 0.70 for a three- and a six-month
interval), and self- and peer-reported OTH converged
well with a median of 0.50. The German OTH has
been used in a broad range of studies supporting its
good psychometric properties and validity (e.g. Proyer,
2012; Proyer et al., 2012; Ruch, Proyer, & Weber,
2010b).
The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener,
Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) is a global measure
for life satisfaction. It consists of five items in total (e.g.
‘If I could live my life over, I would change almost
nothing’). It utilizes a seven-point answer format
(‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’). The SWLS has
excellent psychometric properties (e.g. an alpha coefficient
of 0.86 in Ruch et al., 2010) and is widely used in
research. The German version has been previously used
in a variety of studies (e.g. Gander, Proyer, Ruch, &
Wyss, in press; Peterson et al., 2007; Proyer, 2012; Ruch
et al., 2010, 2010b).
Procedure
Data were collected among people who registered for a
positive psychology training program. The program was
advertised as ‘Train your strengths’ and participants
completed a broad range of measures including those
reported here. Proyer et al. (in press) give a full description
of the program. They were recruited via reports in
newspapers, pamphlets, and an announcement on the
website of a psychology department at a Swiss university.
They had to be 18 years or older and were not
allowed to undergo any psychological or psychiatric
treatment (and/or to be consuming psychotropic drugs;
inclusion criteria). Other than that there were no further
restrictions for participation. Furthermore, the number of
students of psychology was strictly limited (under 5%).
We mailed the questionnaires to the participants and all
data were collected before the program started (all from
the baseline measurement).
Before the training program started, the participants
had to recruit two friends and/or relatives that provided
peer ratings on their strengths of character (using the
VIA-IS peer form). The acquaintanceship between the
peer and the target person is very familiar (ratings were
obtained via the item ‘I know the person …’ with
answer categories from 1 = ‘a little bit’ to 9 = ‘very well’;
M = 8.24, SD = 1.00). Participants had known each other
for 17 years on average (SD = 13 years); 20.4% asked
their partner, 25.7% asked another family member, and
39.1% asked a friend to complete the peer-rating questionnaires.
Out of the full sample, seven peer raters indicated
that they knew the target person for less than a
year (between six and nine months) but since they indicated
that they knew the target person well they were
retained in the sample. In total, 5.6% of the participants
knew the target person for less than two years. On the
other side of the distribution, nine participants indicated
to know the target person for 45 years or longer and half
of the participants indicated to know the target person
for at least 15 years.
Data from the two raters were averaged for all analyses
(across all 24 strengths, the correlations between the
pairs of raters ranged between 0.15 and 0.48,
median = 0.29); 32 participants only provided one peer
rating and this was then used for the following analyses.
To prevent possible answer biases (e.g. impression management,
socially desirable, and response behavior), we
informed the participants that the peer ratings had to be
sent directly to the department in a sealed envelope and
that the target person would not have access to these ratings
(and that these ratings would not be part of the
feedback given to the person at the end of the program).
All data were collected in paper–pencil format. Neither
of the participants was paid for his/her services nor did
they have to pay for their participation.
Results
Skewness and kurtosis indicated normal distribution for
all variables in the study. Correlations with demographics
(age, sex, and educational status) replicated earlier findings
with the German VIA-IS (Ruch et al., 2010).
Results are not reported in full detail here but they
indicated that some of the strengths varied with age and
gender (from small to medium effect sizes); the
correlations ranged between À0.12 (p < 0.05; social
intelligence) and 0.16 (p < 0.01; self-regulation) between
strengths and age (median = À0.01) and between À0.17
(spirituality) and 0.31 (both p < 0.01; love of learning)
with the educational level (median = 0.03). Gender
differences were found for curiosity (women > men;
d = 0.24), love (women> men; d = 0.29), social intelligence
(women > men; d = 0.34), self-regulation (men > women;
d = 0.27), appreciation of beauty and excellence
(women > men; d = 0.46), and gratitude (women > men;
d = 0.24). The life of pleasure correlated with younger
120 C. Buschor et al.
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age (r = À0.18, p < 0.01) and the engaged life with
higher educational level (r = 0.16, p < 0.01); men and
women did not differ in their endorsement of the three
OTH. Therefore, age, gender, and education were controlled
in the subsequently conducted analyses. The intercorrelations
among the VIA-IS-scales ranged between
r = À0.15 (bravery and modesty) and 0.68 (both p < 0.01;
curiosity and love of learning; median = 0.31). Nineteen
out of the 276 correlations were ! 0.51. The median of
the intercorrelations was 0.35 for the peer ratings; lowest
= À0.15 (creativity and modesty) and highest = 0.73
(both p < 0.01; open-mindedness and perspective). In the
peer ratings, 50 out of the 276 correlation coefficients
were ! 0.50. Intercorrelations in the OTH were r = 0.34
between pleasure and engagement, r = 0.32 between
engagement and meaning (both p < 0.01) and r = 0.12
(n.s.) between pleasure and meaning.
Correlation coefficients were computed between
self- and peer-reported strengths and (self-reported) satisfaction
with life and OTH. Mean scores and standard
deviations were computed for all scales and a reliability
analysis (internal consistency) was conducted. We also
computed correlations between rank-ordered strengths
(i.e. ordering self- and peer-rated strengths for each participant
from 1 [lowest] to 24 [highest]) and the wellbeing
measures. Park and colleagues (2004b) argued that
the ipsative scoring (i.e. using the rank ordered strengths)
reduces the likelihood of distortions by response biases.
Table 1 lists all the coefficients sorted by the size of their
correlations with life satisfaction in the VIA-IS in
descending order (starting from the highest).
If computing mean level differences for the means of
the VIA-IS and the VIA-IS peer, significant differences
emerged for three out of the 24 strengths; i.e. self-ratings
for gratitude t(331) = À3.11, p < 0.01; d = 0.22) and
appreciation of beauty and excellence (t(332) = À2.42,
p < 0.05; d = 0.20) were higher than the corresponding
peer ratings while persistence was lower in the self-ratings
than in the peer ratings, t(331) = 11.00, p < 0.001;
d = 0.68.
Reliability analyses indicated that all measures
yielded satisfactory alpha coefficients. With the exception
of life of engagement (α = 0.61), self-rated honesty
(α = 0.65) and self-rated prudence (α = 0.68), all coefficients
were ! 0.70. Table 1 shows that the alphas varied
as a function of the standard deviation of the scales. The
reduced reliability can be explained by the restricted
variance.
How do self- and peer-rated character strengths relate
to life satisfaction?
The correlation coefficients shown in Table 1 replicated
findings from earlier studies for the self-rated strengths.
Virtually all of the strengths yielded positive relations to
life satisfaction. The strengths with the numerically
highest correlation coefficients were hope, zest, love,
curiosity, and gratitude and ranged between r = 0.37 and
r = 0.53 (all p < 0.01). The median of all correlation coefficients
was 0.21. Only three out of the 24 strengths
yielded nonsignificant correlation coefficients (i.e. openmindedness,
appreciation of beauty and excellence, and
modesty). When analyzing the rank-ordered strengths,
again, hope, zest, curiosity, love (all r > 0.21, p < 0.01),
and gratitude (r = 0.19, p < 0.05) correlated highest with
only a slight variation in their sequence. All three OTH
correlated positively with satisfaction with life and
yielded coefficients between 0.24 (meaning) and 0.37
(engagement).
The study allows for a comparison of results from
self- and peer-ratings on character strengths. Across all
strengths, the order of the size of the validity coefficients
converged well. There was a correlation of r(23) = 0.84
(p < 0.001) when computing the correlation between the
rank-ordered self- and peer-rated strengths. The average
absolute difference among the correlation coefficients
was 0.15 within the VIA-IS and 0.11 for the peer-report
form. The range of the correlation coefficients was
numerically higher in the self-report data (= 0.52) compared
to the peer-report data (= 0.41). Ten out of the 24
peer-rated strengths yielded statistically significant correlation
coefficients for satisfaction with life. As expected,
the median of all correlation coefficients between peerrated
strengths and satisfaction with life was lower than
for the self-ratings (i.e. median = 0.21 for the self-ratings
and 0.10 for the peer ratings). Table 1 shows that hope,
zest, curiosity, gratitude, and love, but also persistence,
perspective, humor, self-regulation, and prudence (VIAIS
peer) correlated significantly positively with life satisfaction.
However, the other two strengths that typically
yield the highest coefficients in self-report data (i.e. gratitude
and love) were also among those with significant
correlation coefficients.
How do self- and peer-rated character strengths relate
to the orientations to happiness?
The correlations between character strengths (VIA-IS)
and the three OTH replicated earlier findings. Overall,
those strengths that yielded the highest correlation with
satisfaction with life also tended to be highest correlated
with the three routes to happiness. The median of the
correlation coefficients between the self-rated character
strengths and the pleasant life was 0.21. The correlation
coefficients ranged from À0.07 (appreciation of beauty
and excellence, n.s.) to 0.43 (humor, zest, p < 0.01).
Among other findings, it was striking that those high in
bravery seemed to endorse a hedonistic stance towards
life. The median of the correlations between the engaged
life and the VIA-IS was 0.28 and the correlations were
between 0.01 (appreciation of beauty and excellence,
n.s.) and 0.53 (zest, p < 0.01). Also, those higher in
persistence reported higher inclination to flow-related
activities. The median of the correlations between the 24
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self-rated character strengths and life of meaning was
0.28 (from 0.08 for appreciation of beauty and excellence
[n.s.] to 0.58 religiousness, p < 0.01). Overall, it
needs to be mentioned that the strength of appreciation
of beauty and excellence was the only strength that
existed independently from the expression of the three
orientations.
The general pattern reported for the relation of the
VIA-IS peer and the OTH was similar to the findings
with the VIA-IS. Overall, the rank order of the validity
coefficients for self- and peer-rated strengths were 0.87,
0.81, and 0.79, for pleasure, engagement, and meaning,
respectively. As regards the absolute magnitude of the
coefficients, again hope, zest, and curiosity had outstanding
positions while peer-rated love only contributed to
the pleasurable life. Gratitude existed largely independently
of the expression of the three orientations. The
median of the correlations between the peer-rated
character strengths (VIA-IS peer) and life of pleasure
was 0.10 ranging between À0.11 (religiousness, appreciation
of beauty and excellence, p < 0.05) and 0.27 (hope,
p < 0.01). The median of the correlations between the
peer-rated character strengths and life of engagement was
0.04 (from À0.13 appreciation of beauty and excellence
to 0.29 for zest, all p < 0.01). The median of the correlations
between the self-rated character strengths and life
of meaning was 0.04 (with a range of À0.07 for honesty
[n.s.] to 0.30 for religiousness, p < 0.01).
A few more findings of the relation between the
VIA-IS peer and the OTH should be highlighted. Two
strengths assigned to the virtue of wisdom (i.e. love of
learning and creativity) correlated with all three orientations
and seemed, therefore, to be related to the full life
(Peterson et al., 2005b) – despite that they were uncorrelated
with the SWLS. Furthermore, those whom their
peers saw as religious endorsed a meaningful life while
those described as humorous were higher in the pleasurable
and engaged life.
Do the OTH predict satisfaction with life beyond
the contribution of (self- and peer-rated) strengths of
character?
It has been shown that the three OTH correlated robustly
with self and peer-rated character strengths, and that
strengths as well as the three OTH correlated with satisfaction
with life. However, it has not yet been explicitly
tested whether the endorsement of a pleasurable,
engaged, and/or meaningful life contributes to the expression
of satisfaction with life beyond the contribution of
character. For testing this empirically, we computed two
hierarchical regression analyses with satisfaction with life
as a dependent variable and self- and peer-rated character
strengths as well as the OTH as predictors. The correlations
of the OTH scales with the VIA-IS and the VIApeer
are given in Table 1. They ranged between À0.15
(modesty and bravery) and 0.68 (curiosity and love of
learning) for the VIA-IS (median = 0.31) and between
À0.14 (creativity and modesty) and 0.73 (perspective and
open-mindedness) for the VIA-IS peer (median = 0.34).
Thus, the incremental contribution in the prediction of
the dependent variable is in the focus of the interest. In
both, analyses demographics (age, gender, and educational
level) entered the regression in a first step (method:
enter) for controlling the potential impact of these variables
in an initial step. At the level of bivariate correlations,
age (r = 0.06), gender (r = 0.05), and educational
level (r = 0.06) existed independently from life satisfaction.
In the first analysis, self-rated and in the second
one, peer-rated character strengths entered the equation in
a second step (enter). Finally, in both analyses, the three
OTH were entered in the third step to test the incremental
contribution of these beyond demographics and character
strengths (stepwise).
The first regression yielded a significant multiple correlation
coefficient of 0.49 (F [29, 318] = 9.38, p < 0.001).
Given the size of the correlation coefficients, we tested
for collinearity and computed the variance inflation factor
(VIF) for each of the variables. All VIF coefficients were
2.94 (median = 2.18) and, therefore, in an acceptable
range. The demographics did not predict satisfaction
with life significantly and yielded a ΔR2
of 0.01. Six out
of the 24 character strengths (i.e. appreciation of beauty
and excellence [β = À.25, p < 0.01], curiosity [β = 0.15,
p < 0.05], gratitude [β = 0.25, p < 0.01], hope [β = 0.27,
p < 0.01], love [β = 0.25, p < 0.01], and religiousness,
β = À.12, p < 0.05) yielded significant beta weights and
predicted satisfaction with life. Their ΔR2
was 0.45. In
the final model, two out of the three OTH entered the
equation; first, life of engagement (β = 0.14, p < 0.05) followed
by the meaningful life (β = 0.12, p < 0.05). Their
incremental contribution to the prediction of satisfaction
with life was 0.017 and 0.007, respectively. Thus, an
engaged and meaningful life predicted a small portion of
satisfaction with life beyond character strengths.
It needs to be noted that the negative beta signs in
this analysis point towards suppression effects. This had
to be expected given the large number of predictors in
this analysis and the observed relations. Appreciation of
beauty and excellence was uncorrelated and religiousness
had a small positive correlation with life satisfaction. We
tested several simplifications of the model and also
included one model, in which we used five factors
derived from the VIA-IS, which have been described in
earlier studies using the German VIA-IS as well (e.g.
Ruch et al., 2010). The factor solution was highly similar
to the one reported by Ruch et al. (2010) – Tucker’s Phi
coefficients were 0.86, 0.95, 0.94, 0.92, and 0.98, respectively.
In this parsimonious model (computed with the
same specifications as described above), an R2
of 0.30
was found, F [9, 318] = 14.84, p < 0.01. In the final
model, interpersonal strengths (e.g. leadership, teamwork,
and kindness; β = 0.18, p < 0.01), emotional
strengths (e.g. zest, hope, and love; β = 0.38, p < 0.01),
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and theological strengths (religiousness, gratitude, and
appreciation of beauty and excellence; β = 0.15, p < 0.01)
were predictive (ΔR2
= 0.27). Additionally, the life of
engagement had a small contribution in the prediction of
life satisfaction (β = 0.16, p < 0.01; ΔR2
= 0.02; demographics:
ΔR2
= 0.01). This analysis (overcoming potential
problems of suppressor variables) provided support
for the general notion that OTH contributed to the prediction
of life satisfaction beyond strengths.
Both, the OTH and the VIA-IS predicted life satisfaction
and, since there was an overlap (see Table 1), we
further tested whether the entire predictive valence of the
OTH is accounted for by the VIA-IS and whether the
findings from the previous analysis could be attributed to
noncontent-related aspects such as measurement errors.
Therefore, we repeated the analysis and entered the three
orientations (method: enter) in the second step after the
demographics, and the strengths (method: stepwise) in
the third step to the equation. Results are not reported in
detail but the three orientations yielded a ΔR2
of 0.17;
R2
= 0.44, F(12, 318) = 20.31, p < 0.001. This finding
supported the notion that there was a unique contribution
of orientation to happiness in the prediction of life
satisfaction.
In the second regression analysis, we used the peerrated
strengths (VIA-IS peer) as predictors in step 2 of
the regression (method: enter; step 1 = demographics
[enter] and step 3 = OTH, stepwise). Again, we tested for
collinearity and the VIF coefficients were in an acceptable
range (all 4.25; median = 2.78). As in the previous
analysis, the overall regression was significant and
yielded a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.36 (F [29,
322] = 5.78, p < 0.001). Six out of the 24 peer-rated character
strengths (i.e. appreciation of beauty and excellence
[β = À0.30, p < 0.01], hope [β = 0.30, p < 0.01], love
[β = 0.24, p < 0.01], curiosity [β = 0.23, p < 0.01], social
intelligence [β = À0.23, p < 0.05], and open-mindedness
[β = À0.21, p < 0.05]) yielded a significant beta weight
and predicted life satisfaction. They accounted for a ΔR2
of 0.27. In the final model, the life of engagement
(β = 0.24, p < 0.01; ΔR2
= 0.07) and the pleasurable life
(β = 0.13, p < 0.05; ΔR2
= 0.01) entered the equation after
the VIA-peer (ΔR2
for demographics = 0.01). Thus, an
engaged and pleasurable life predicted an additional portion
of satisfaction with life beyond peer-rated character
strengths while the life of meaning was not predictive.
Again, we computed the analysis with changing the rank
order of entering the VIA scales and the OTH. The OTH
scales yielded an incremental validity of 0.16; R2
= 0.33,
F(12, 322) = 12.52, p < 0.001.
Discussion
This study extends the knowledge about the relationships
between strengths of character and life satisfaction in
one important aspect. The study provides the first empirical
evidence that not only self-reported but also strengths
assessed by knowledgeable others relate positively to life
satisfaction. Ten out of the 24 peer-rated strengths of the
VIA-classification yielded statistically significant correlation
coefficients. The three numerically highest coefficients
for the VIA-IS peer were hope, zest, and curiosity.
This converged well with the findings for the VIA-IS.
There, typically curiosity, gratitude, hope, love, and zest
correlate highest (see also Proyer et al., in press); in the
peer ratings in this sample, love and gratitude also
yielded significant coefficients (although humor and persistence
were higher). This suggests that data from selfreports
on strengths and life satisfaction do not seem to
be biased by methodological problems (one data source;
answer tendencies, response sets, etc.) – at least not to
the same degree as has been found for other personality
traits (see e.g. Connolly et al., 2007).
One of the major findings of the study is that peers
do not only seem to be able to observe and describe
character strengths in their acquaintances but that these
observations also relate to the self-experienced wellbeing
of the target persons. People who are perceived as
hopeful/optimistic (someone who is expecting the best in
the future and working to achieve it), zestful (someone
who is approaching life with excitement and energy),
curious (someone who takes an interest in all of ongoing
experience), and grateful (someone who is being aware
of and thankful for the good things that happen) see
themselves as more satisfied with their life in general –
of course, the opposite relationship is also possible.
Although the pattern of correlations with life satisfaction
for self- and peer-rated strengths was highly similar,
there were some minor variations that seem worth noting.
For example, within the peer ratings, persistence
was of higher relevance than self-reported persistence.
People who are perceived as perseverant and industrious
seem to be more satisfied with their lives. One might
argue that this relates to more frequent flow experiences
when engaging in activities that are congruent with perseverance
as strength – especially those activities that are
internally motivated (Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Wellenzohn,
Proyer, Gander, & Ruch, 2012). Finally, an
alternative explanation of the finding might be that
perseverant people more often achieve their goals, especially
long-term goals (see Emmons, 2003).
As expected, correlation coefficients were lower for
peer-rated strengths than for self-rated strengths. For
example, only two correlation coefficients (hope and
zest) with life satisfaction were ! 0.30 (r2
were 0.09
and 0.14, respectively). Likewise, some of the coefficients
were statistically significant yet practically negligible
(six were < 0.20). The findings, however, are in line
with expectations and generally seem to support the
notion of the contribution of good character to life satisfaction.
Additionally, it should be mentioned that also
those correlations, which display divergence between
self- and peer-reports might point towards areas, which
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might be worth following up in future studies or practical
applications.
Further studies are needed on the (experimental)
enhancements of life satisfaction in positive interventions.
There are preliminary data providing support for
the notion that specific strengths (those typically displaying
high correlations with life satisfaction) may preferably
be targeted in interventions to enhance well-being
(Proyer et al., in press). Studies in this line of research
might provide ground for further developing strengthbased
interventions that foster an individual’s well-being
(Gander et al., in press; Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson,
2005). Aside from the relevance of the study for
interventions, there are several other implications that
should be mentioned. At a practical level, the study provides
further support for the call to include strengths in
psychological assessments and reports (Snyder, Ritschel,
Rand, & Berg, 2006) but also in other settings such as
career guidance and vocational counseling (Proyer,
Sidler, Weber, & Ruch, 2012). This indicates that practitioners
can not only focus on identifying and fostering
strengths in a client but also discussing what strengths
other people see in him/her and using this for the benefit
of the client. Discussing the strength-related perception
of others could be a helpful practical tool. In any case,
the study argues for a multi-methodological approach in
working with clients and their strengths. Proyer et al.
(2012) suggest, for example, that vocational guidance
can benefit from the inclusion of the client’s strengths –
not only for the purpose of selecting a profession or an
education but also for uncovering potentials at work (e.g.
for fostering positive experiences at work; see also
Harzer & Ruch, in press). Recent studies from our working
group suggest that using signature strengths at work
has beneficial effects of work-related factors (Harzer &
Ruch, in press).
The study also replicates earlier findings for relations
of the VIA-IS with the OTH. Again, strengths that
yielded the highest correlation with life satisfaction also
tended to be most highly correlated with the three routes
to happiness (Peterson et al., 2007). The strengths
numerically most strongly related to the pleasurable life
were humor and zest; zest and persistence yielded strongest
relations with engagement, and religiousness with
the life of meaning. Thus, there is a stable relationship
among these variables. Those strengths that were most
highly related to life satisfaction were also most highly
related to the three OTH with the exception of love and
gratitude in the peer ratings. Those who are seen as
grateful, endorse a life of meaning while those perceived
as loving have a propensity to the pleasurable life. Thus,
one might argue that expressing gratitude is best observable
among those people who have found a meaning in
their life and who savor a life of engagement. For the
case of love, one might argue that especially the pleasurable
aspects of friendships and relations are prone to
observations by others.
One of the peer-rated strengths did not yield significant
relations to any of the three OTH; namely, appreciation
of beauty and excellence. Among those who are
perceived as noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence,
and/or skilled performance in all domains of life,
there are presumably people of all kinds – those who are
hedonistically orientated and those who are not, those
seeking flow and those who are not and those who have
found meaning and those who have not. It might be that
this group is more heterogeneous than it is the case in
the other strengths – presumably, those who enjoy performing
arts might be very different from those enjoying
beautiful landscapes, etc. (cf. Güsewell & Ruch, 2012).
A further explanation of this finding might be that certain
aspects of character strengths are comparatively
more difficult to observe and describe in others (cf.
Allik, Realo, Mõttus, & Kuppens, 2010; Lucas & Baird,
2006). Peterson and Seligman (2004) differentiate
between phasic (can be displayed on a constant and
ongoing basis; e.g. curiosity, humor, or zest) and tonic
strengths (rise and fall depending whether a given situation
affords it or not; e.g. bravery, open-mindedness, or
teamwork). One might argue that if people cannot
observe lots of situations, in which phasic strengths
could be displayed that this might have an impact on the
findings. This, however, should be tested in more detail
in a future study.
The pattern of correlations also revealed several less
well-described findings. For example, those with higher
peer ratings in bravery yielded a strong endorsement to
the pleasurable life. One might argue that this supports
the validity of the OTH scale as especially these persons
might enjoy hedonistically oriented activities – some of
which explicitly demand a certain amount of bravery
(e.g. parachute jumps, bungee jumping, adventure holidays,
etc.).
Finally, this study shows that the three orientations to
happiness (Peterson et al., 2005b) predict about 16% of
the variance of life satisfaction in general. This is a considerable
amount and it underlines the relevance of these
routes to happiness in describing what makes a satisfied
life. This study indicates that the OTH has predictive
power beyond self- and peer-rated strengths. Therefore,
it might be fruitful to consider the three orientations as
potential means for experimentally enhancing life satisfaction
and well-being (see Giannopoulos & Vella-Brodrick,
2011). Especially, the life of engagement seems to
be strongly related to satisfaction with life.
As a further limitation of this study, it must be
acknowledged that compared to other paper and pencil
data collected in Switzerland (e.g. Peterson et al., 2007;
Ruch et al., 2010), our self-rater sample scored numerically
lower in life satisfaction and the engaged life.
These differences may be traced back to the selection
procedure; i.e. working with data from participants registering
for a positive psychology program. One might
argue that such programs attract people who are inter-
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ested in further improving their conditions of life and
well-being and who are probably more open toward concepts
such as strengths of character or OTH. Although
the findings are in line with the expectations and, therefore,
seem to support the suitability of the sample, it is
suggested to replicate and extend the findings in a new
sample. As a further limitation, it should be noted that
for a small number of participants the duration of the
acquaintanceship could be criticized (i.e. 5.6% for less
than two years). Hence, in a future study, a sample,
which is more homogeneous regarding this aspect, would
be desirable. However, it should be noted that also those
peer raters indicated that they know the target person
well and it is also expected that the target persons themselves
would approach people whom they trust in their
judgment. Nevertheless, this aspect could be studied in
more detail in a follow-up study. Additionally, it should
be highlighted that some of the VIA-IS scales yield a
considerable overlap; e.g. 46% shared variance between
curiosity and love of learning. Although larger intercorrelations
among specific scales were to be expected this
could have had an impact on some of the findings
reported in this study. Although tests for collinearity
indicated an acceptable range, it needs to be acknowledged
that the correlations between predictors could have
had an impact on the findings. Hence, the contribution
of individual predictors should be discussed conservatively
and the main focus of the argument should rather
be placed on the contribution of strengths and/or OTH
as a whole rather than the single strengths. Additional
analyses based on a more parsimonious model (i.e. using
a lower number of predictors) supported the notion that
the OTH have an incremental predictive power above
the contribution of the strengths. Overall, this study demonstrates
that the association between character strengths,
orientation to happiness and life satisfaction is stable
across self- and peer-ratings and that character relates
positively to well-being.
Acknowledgments
Data collection was supported by a research grant from the
University of Zurich (FK 56231101) and the Suzanne and Hans
Biäsch Foundation for Applied Psychology. The completion of
the paper has been supported by a grant from the Swiss
National Science Foundation awarded to RTP and WR (SNSF;
100014_132512). All authors contributed equally to this study
and were listed alphabetically. The authors are grateful to Dr.
Frank A. Rodden for proofreading the manuscript.
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