Constitutional Rights, Balancing,
and Rationality*
ROBERT ALEXY
Abstract. The article begins with an outline of the balancing construction as devel-
oped by the German Federal Constitutional court since the Lüth decision in 1958. It
then takes up two objections to this approach raised by Jürgen Habermas. The first
maintains that balancing is both irrational and a danger for rights, depriving them
of their normative power. The second is that balancing takes one out of the realm of
right and wrong, correctness and incorrectness, and justification, and, thus, out of
the realm of the law. The article attempts to counter these objections by showing that
there exists a rational structure of balancing that can be made explicit by a "Law of
Balancing" and a "Disproportionality Rule." These rules show, first, that balancing
is not a danger for rights but, on the contrary, a necessary means of lending them
protection, and second, that balancing is not an alternative to argumentation but an
indispensable form of rational practical discourse.
I. Two Constructions of Constitutional Rights
Modern democratic constitutions comprise two classes or categories of
norms. The first class contains norms that constitute and organize legisla-
tion, adjudication, and administration. The central theme of these norms is
empowerment. The second class contains norms that constrain and direct
public power. Norms conferring constitutional rights are most prominent
here. This dichotomy seems to be universally valid, at least in the universe
of democratic constitutions. The broad-based validity of this thesis is owing
to its highly abstract character. Just below this level of abstractness, differ-
ent possibilities come into play. This concerns public power as well as indi-
vidual rights. Here I will consider only the latter.
There are two main constructions of constitutional rights: one is narrow
and strict, a second is broad and comprehensive. The first of these can be
called the rule construction, the second, the principle construction. These
two constructions are nowhere realized in pure form, but they represent
Ratio Juris. Vol. 16 No. 2 June 2003 (131­40)
 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2003, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden 02148, USA.
* I should like to thank Stanley L. Paulson for help and advice on matters of English style.
different tendencies, and the question of which of them is better is a central
question of the interpretation of every constitution that provides for consti-
tutional review.
According to the narrow and strict construction, norms conferring con-
stitutional rights are not essentially distinguishable from other norms of the
legal system. To be sure, as constitutional norms, their place is at the highest
level of the legal system, and their foci are highly abstract rights of the great-
est importance, but none of this--according to the rule construction--gives
rise to any fundamental structural difference. They are legal rules, and they
are applicable just like all other legal rules. Their defining characteristic is
that they protect certain abstractly described positions of the citizen against
the state.
According to the comprehensive or holistic construction, norms confer-
ring constitutional rights do not simply protect certain abstractly described
positions of the citizen against the state. This enduring function of con-
stitutional rights is embedded in a broader framework. In Germany, this
broader framework was first fully developed in the Lüth decision of the
Federal Constitutional Court in 1958. Lüth had appealed to the German
public, to the owners of movie theaters, and to the film distributors to
boycott movies produced after 1945 by Veit Harlan on the ground that
Harlan has been the most prominent Nazi film director. Lüth referred, in
particular, to the film "Jud Süß," the leading anti-Semitic Nazi propaganda
movie. The District Court in Hamburg held that Lüth must forbear from
making any appeal to boycott Harlan's new film "Immortal Lover"
(Unsterbliche Geliebte). The reason given for this judgment was that an appeal
to boycott such films violated section 826 of the German Civil Code, as being
contrary to public policy. Lüth brought a constitutional complaint against
this decision.
The German Federal Constitutional Court considered Lüth's appeal to
boycott such films as prima facie protected by the freedom of expression guar-
anteed in article 5 (1) of the Basic Law. Article 5 (2) of the Basic Law con-
tains, however, three clauses limiting the freedom of expression guaranteed
in the first section. The first of them is the "general law" clause. The Con-
stitutional Court granted that section 826 of the Civil Code, applied by the
Hamburg Court, was a general law in the sense of the first limiting clause,
the "general law" clause (Decisions of the Federal Constitutional Court,
BVerfGE vol. 7, 198, 211f.). It is at precisely this point that the dichotomy
between the narrow and strict, that is, the rule construction, and the broad
and comprehensive, that is, the principle construction, comes into play. If
one follows the rule construction, the task is simply that of answering two
questions. The first is whether Lüth's appeal to boycott is a case that is to
be subsumed under freedom of expression. The Constitutional Court gave
a positive answer here, and I think this is correct. The second question is,
whether section 826 of the Civil Code applies here. This is the case when the
132 Robert Alexy
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appeal to boycott is against public policy. The Hamburg Court argued that
it is indeed against public policy, for it aims at preventing the reemergence
of Harlan as a representative creator of movies notwithstanding the fact that
he had not only passed the procedure of "Denazification" but had also not
been sentenced in a criminal proceeding for having committed Nazi crimes.
In such a case, an appeal to boycott must be declared as being--according
to the Hamburg Court--contrary to "the democratic convictions of law and
morals of the German people" (BVerfGE vol. 7, 198, 201).
The Constitutional Court argued that it is not enough to carry out these
two isolated subsumptions (BVerfGE vol. 7, 198, 207f.). Rather, the Court
required that there be a balancing or weighing of the colliding constitutional
principles where the application of rules of the civil law might limit a con-
stitutional right. The result of its balancing was that the principle of freedom
of expression must be given priority over the competing constitutional con-
siderations. It demanded that the clause "against public policy" in section
826 of the German Civil Code had to be interpreted in accordance with this
priority. In a word, Lüth prevailed.
The Lüth decision connects three ideas that have served fundamentally to
shape German constitutional law. The first is that the constitutional guar-
antee of individual rights is not simply a guarantee of classical defensive
rights of the citizen against the state. The constitutional rights embody, to
cite the Federal Constitutional Court, "at the same time an objective order
of values."1
There has been debate about what the Court could have meant
by "objective order of values." Later the Court simply talks about "the prin-
ciples [ . . . ] that are expressed by the constitutional rights."2
Taking up this
line,3
one might say that the first basic idea of the Lüth decision is that con-
stitutional rights have not only the character of rules but also the character
of principles. The second idea, closely tied to the first, is that the values or
principles found in the constitutional rights apply not only to the relation
between the citizen and the state but, well beyond that, "to all areas of law."4
Thanks to this, a "radiating effect"5
of constitutional rights over the entire
legal system is brought about. Constitutional rights become ubiquitous. The
third idea is implied by the structure of values and principles. Values and
principles tend to collide. A collision of principles can only be resolved
by balancing. The lesson of the Lüth decision that is most important for
everyday legal work runs, therefore, as follows: "A `balancing of interests'
becomes necessary."6
Constitutional Rights 133
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1
BVerfGE vol. 7, 198, 205: "auch eine objektive Wertordnung."
2
BVerfGE vol. 81, 242, 254: "den Prinzipien [ . . . ] , die in den Grundrechten zum Ausdruck kommen."
3
On a closer analysis of the relation between the concept of principle and the concept of value
see Alexy 2002, 86­93.
4
BVerfGE vol. 7, 198, 205: "für alle Bereiche des Rechts."
5
BVerfGE vol. 7, 198, 207: "Ausstrahlungswirkung."
6
BVerfGE vol. 7, 198, 210: "Es wird deshalb eine `Güterabwägung' erforderlich."
From a methodological point of view, the concept of balancing is the
central concept in the adjudication of the Federal Constitutional Court,
which has developed further the line first set out in the Lüth decision. Instead
of opposing a broad and comprehensive to a narrow and strict construction
of constitutional rights, one could, then, juxtapose a balancing approach with
a subsumption approach. It is at this point that the question arises: Which
of these two constructions provides for greater rationality in constitutional
review--the one demanding subsumption or the one demanding balancing?
II. Habermas's Critique of the Balancing Construction
The phenomenon of balancing in constitutional law leads to so many prob-
lems that it is not even possible to list them here, much less talk about them.
I will confine myself to two objections raised by Jürgen Habermas.
Habermas's first objection is that the balancing approach deprives con-
stitutional rights of their normative power. By means of balancing, he claims,
rights are downgraded to the level of goals, policies, and values. They
thereby lose the "strict priority" that is characteristic of "normative points of
view" (Habermas 1996, 256). Thus, as he puts it, a "fire wall" comes tum-
bling down:
For if in cases of collision all reasons can assume the character of policy arguments,
then the fire wall erected in legal discourse by a deontological understanding of legal
norms and principles collapses. (Ibid., 258f.)
This danger of watering down constitutional rights is said to be accom-
panied by "the danger of irrational rulings" (ibid., 259). According to
Habermas, there are no rational standards for balancing:
Because there are no rational standards here, weighing takes place either arbitrarily
or unreflectively, according to customary standards and hierarchies. (Ibid., 259;
transl. altered)
This first objection speaks, then, to two supposed substantive effects or con-
sequences of the balancing approach: watering down and irrationality. The
second objection concerns a conceptual problem. Habermas maintains that
the balancing approach takes legal rulings out of the realm defined by con-
cepts like right and wrong, correctness and incorrectness, and justification,
and into a realm defined by concepts like adequate and inadequate, and dis-
cretion. "Weighing of values" is said to be able to yield a judgment as to its
"result," but is not able to "justify" that result:
The court's judgment is then itself a value judgment that more or less adequately
reflects a form of life articulating itself in the framework of a concrete order of values.
But this judgment is no longer related to the alternatives of a right or wrong deci-
sion. (Habermas 1998, 430)
134 Robert Alexy
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This second objection is at least as serious as the first one. It amounts to the
thesis that the loss of the category of correctness is the price to be paid for
balancing or weighing.
If this were true, then, to be sure, the balancing approach would have suf-
fered a fatal blow. Law is necessarily connected with a claim to correctness
(Alexy 1998, 209­14). If balancing or weighing were incompatible with cor-
rectness and justification, it would have no place in law. The development
of German constitutional law in the last 50 years would, at its very core, be
contaminated by error.
Is balancing intrinsically irrational? Is the balancing approach unable to
prevent the sacrifice of individual rights? Does balancing really mean we
are compelled to bid farewell to correctness and justification and, thus, to
reason, too?
It is difficult to answer these questions without knowing what balancing
is. To know what balancing is presupposes insight into its structure. A glance
at actual instances of balancing will, I think, be instructive here.
III. The Structure of Balancing
In German constitutional law, balancing is one part of what is required by
a more comprehensive principle. This more comprehensive principle is the
principle of proportionality (Verhältnismäßigkeitsgrundsatz). The principle of
proportionality consists of three sub-principles: the principles of suitability,
of necessity, and of proportionality in the narrow sense. All three principles
express the idea of optimisation. Constitutional rights as principles are
optimisation requirements. As optimisation requirements, principles are
norms requiring that something be realized to the greatest extent possible,
given the legal and factual possibilities (Alexy 2002, 47).
The principles of suitability and necessity concern optimisation relative to
what is factually possible. The principle of suitability excludes the adoption
of means obstructing the realisation of at least one principle without pro-
moting any principle or goal for which they were adopted. If a means M,
adopted in order to promote the principle P1, is not suitable for this purpose,
but obstructs the realisation of P2, then there are no costs either to P1 or P2 if
M is omitted, but there are costs to P2 if M is adopted. Thus, P1 and P2 taken
together may be realised to a higher degree relative to what is factually pos-
sible if M is abandoned. P1 and P2, when taken together, prohibit the use of
M. This shows that the principle of suitability is nothing other than an
expression of the idea of Pareto-optimality: One position can be improved
without detriment to another.
The same applies to the principle of necessity. This principle requires that
of two means promoting P1 that are, broadly speaking, equally suitable, the
one that interferes less intensively in P2 ought to be chosen. If there exists a
less intensively interfering and equally suitable means, one position can be
Constitutional Rights 135
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improved at no cost to the other. The applicability of the principle of neces-
sity presupposes, however, that there is no third principle or goal, P3,, that
is affected negatively by the adoption of the means interfering less inten-
sively in P2. If this constellation arises, the case cannot be decided by
considerations concerning Pareto-optimality. When costs are unavoidable,
balancing becomes necessary.
Balancing is the subject of the third sub-principle of the principle of pro-
portionality, the principle of proportionality in the narrow sense. This prin-
ciple expresses what optimisation relative to the legal possibilities means. It
is identical with a rule that might be called "Law of Balancing" (Alexy 2002,
102). This rule states:
The greater the degree of non-satisfaction of, or detriment to, one principle, the
greater the importance of satisfying the other.
This expresses the point that optimization relative to competing principles
consists of nothing other than balancing.
The Law of Balancing shows that balancing can be broken down into
three stages. The first stage is a matter of establishing the degree of non-
satisfaction of, or detriment to, the first principle. This is followed by a
second stage, in which the importance of satisfying the competing principle
is established. Finally, the third stage answers the question of whether or
not the importance of satisfying the competing principle justifies the
detriment to, or non-satisfaction of, the first.
Habermas's first objection would be justified if it were not possible to
make rational judgments about, first, intensity of interference, second,
degrees of importance, and, third, their relationship to each other. As prin-
ciples, constitutional rights would then permit--the contribution of suit-
ability and necessity aside--any solution. The "fire wall" would not merely
collapse but vanish into thin air.
How can one show that rational judgments about intensity of interference
and degrees of importance are possible, such that an outcome can be ration-
ally established by way of balancing? One possible method seems to be the
analysis of examples, an analysis that aims at bringing to light what we pre-
suppose when we resolve cases by balancing. As a first example, a decision
of the Federal Constitutional Court about health warnings will be consid-
ered (BVerfGE vol. 95, 173). The Court qualifies the duty of tobacco produc-
ers to place health warnings regarding the dangers of smoking on their
products as a relatively minor interference with freedom of occupation. By
contrast, a total ban on all tobacco products would count as a serious inter-
ference. Between such minor and serious cases, others of moderate intensity
of interference can be found. In this way, a scale can be developed with the
stages "light," "moderate" and "serious." Our example shows that valid
assignments following this scale are possible.
136 Robert Alexy
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The same is possible on the side of the competing reasons. The health risks
resulting from smoking are high. The reasons justifying the interference
therefore weigh heavily. If in this way the intensity of interference is estab-
lished as minor, and the degree of importance of the reasons for the inter-
ference as high, then the outcome of examining proportionality in the
narrow sense can well be described--as the Federal Constitutional Court
has in fact described it--as "obvious" (BVerfGE vol. 95, 173, 187).
Now one could take the view that the example does not tell us very much.
On the one hand, there are economic activities, on the other, quantifiable
facts. That makes scales possible. This, the objection continues, is however
not applicable to areas in which quantifiable factors such as costs and prob-
abilities play no role, or at any rate no significant role.
To deal with this objection, a second case shall be considered, one that
concerns the classic conflict between freedom of expression and personality
rights. A widely-published satirical magazine, Titanic, described a para-
plegic reserve officer who had successfully carried out his responsibilities,
having been called to active duty, first as a "born Murderer" and in a later
edition as a "cripple." The Düsseldorf Higher Regional Court of Appeal
ruled against Titanic in an action brought by the officer and ordered the
magazine to pay damages in the amount of DM 12,000. Titanic brought
a constitutional complaint. The Federal Constitutional Court undertook
"case-specific balancing"7
between the freedom of expression of those asso-
ciated with the magazine (art. 5 (1) (1), Basic Law) and the officer's general
personality right (art. 2 (1) in connection with art. 1 (1), Basic Law). To this
end, the intensity of interference with these rights was determined and they
were placed in relationship to each other. The judgment in damages was
treated as representing a "lasting"8
or serious interference with freedom of
expression. This conclusion was justified, above all, by the argument that
awarding damages could affect the future willingness of those producing
the magazine to carry out their work in the way they had done heretofore.
The description "born Murderer" was then placed in the context of the satire
published by the Titanic. Here several persons had been described as having
a surname at birth in a "recognisably humorous" way, from "puns to silli-
ness"; for example, Richard von Weizsäcker, then the Federal President, was
described as a "born Citizen" (BVerfGE vol. 86, 1, 11). This context made it
impossible to see in the description "unlawful, serious, illegal harm to per-
sonality right."9
The interference with the personality right was thus treated
as having a moderate, perhaps even only a light or minor intensity. Corre-
sponding to this, the importance of protecting the officer's personality right
by means of an award of damages was moderate, and perhaps only light or
minor. These assessments completed the first part of the judgment. In order
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7
BVerfGE vol. 86, 1, 11: "fallbezogene(n) Abwägung."
8
BVerfGE vol. 86, 1, 10: "nachhaltig(en)."
9
BVerfGE vol. 86, 1, 12: "eine unerlaubte, schwere, rechtswidrige Persönlichkeitsrechtsverletzung."
to justify an award of damages, which is a serious interference with the con-
stitutional right to freedom of expression, the interference with the right to
personality, which was supposed to be compensated for by damages, would
have had to have been at least as serious. But according to the assessment
of the Federal Constitutional Court, it was not. That meant that the inter-
ference with the freedom of expression was disproportionate.
Disproportionality stands here for a relation between, so to speak, "com-
peting real and hypothetical interferences." Each interference with a consti-
tutional right that is not justified by a hypothetical interference at least as
intensive with another principle either contained in the constitution or
admitted by it as a reason for interference, an interference that would
become real in the event that the first interference were omitted, is dispro-
portional. This rule, together with the assessments of the Federal Constitu-
tional Court, implies that the order of the Düsseldorf Higher Regional Court
of Appeal to pay damages of DM 12,000 violated Titanic's rights in so far as
calling the officer a "born Murderer" was the ground for awarding damages.
Matters, however, were different in the case where the officer had been
called a "cripple." According to the assessment of the Federal Constitutional
Court, this counted as "serious harm to the paraplegic's personality right."10
The importance of protecting the officer by means of a judgment for
damages was thus great. This was justified by the fact that describing a
severely disabled person as a "cripple" is generally taken these days to be
"humiliating" and to express a "lack of respect." Thus, the serious interfer-
ence with the freedom of expression was countered by the great importance
accorded to the protection of personality. In this situation the Federal Con-
stitutional Court came to the conclusion that it could "see no flaw in the bal-
ancing to the detriment of freedom of expression."11
Titanic's constitutional
complaint was thus only justified to the extent that it related to damages for
the description "born Murderer." As far as the description "cripple" was
concerned, it was unjustified.
Without any doubt, this decision reflects the balancing approach. Does
Habermas's critique apply to it? I will first consider the more general and
principled objection that balancing takes one out of the realm of right and
wrong, correctness and incorrectness, and justification.
The formal structure of the reasoning of the Federal Constitutional Court
is represented by a rule to which I have already alluded:
An interference with a constitutional right is disproportional if it is not justified by the
fact that the omission of this interference would give rise to an interference with
another principle (or with the same principle with respect to other persons or in other
respects), provided that this latter interference is at least as intensive as the first one.
138 Robert Alexy
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10
BVerfGE vol. 86, 1, 13: "verletz(t) ihn schwer in seinem Persönlichkeitsrecht," emphasis added.
11
BVerfGE vol. 86, 1, 13: "läßt [ . . . ] keine Fehlgewichtung zu Lasten der Meinungsäußerungsfreiheit
erkennen."
This rule, which might be called the "Disproportionality Rule," creates a
relation between judgments about degrees of intensity and the judgment
about proportionality. Judgments about degrees of intensity are the reasons
for the judgment about proportionality. Judgments about proportionality
raise, as do all judgments, a claim to correctness, and this claim is backed
by judgments about degrees of intensity as reasons. This suffices for the
argument that balancing does not remove one from the realm of justifica-
tion and correctness.
This general point is confirmed if one looks not only at the relation
between judgments about degrees of intensity and the judgment about pro-
portionality, but also at the relation between judgments about degrees of
intensity and the reasons put forward to justify them. Habermas maintains
that "weighing takes place either arbitrarily or unreflectively, according
to customary standards and hierarchies" (Habermas 1996, 259). But the
assumptions underlying judgments about the intensity of interference in
freedom of expression and personality are not arbitrary. The Federal Con-
stitutional Court treats the interference with freedom of expression as
serious, because judgments to award damages could reduce the future will-
ingness of those affected to produce their magazine in the way that they had
hitherto done. This is an argument, and it is not a bad argument. It is highly
disputed whether the appellation "born Murderer" really represents only a
light or moderate interference. It is difficult to deny, however, that the court
adduces reasons for this assessment that are at least worthy of considera-
tion. Finally, the Court argued that the description of the paraplegic as a
"cripple" was a very intensive interference with his freedom of personality,
on the ground that it was humiliating and disrespectful. This is, first, an
argument, and, second, a good argument. Therefore, one cannot say that
the weighing takes place "arbitrarily." It is also questionable whether the
assumptions about degrees of intensity are made by the Federal Constitu-
tional Court "unreflectively, according to customary standards and hierar-
chies." It is true that the standards follow a line of precedent, which can be
traced back to the Lüth decision. But talk of "customary" standards would
be justified only if the existence of precedent were the only relevant matter
for the decision, and not their correctness. Furthermore, one could talk of an
"unreflective" application only if the application had taken place outside the
framework of argumentation, for arguments are the public expression of
reflection. But there is no lack of argumentation here. All this applies to the
Tobacco decision as well.
There remains the question of whether, as Habermas contends, balancing
leads to the collapse of the "fire wall." Once again, the Titanic decision is
instructive. The Federal Constitutional Court held that calling the paraplegic
a "cripple" was humiliating and disrespectful. One can go even further
with this characterization. Such public humiliation and lack of respect
undermines the dignity of the victim. That is not only serious in some way
Constitutional Rights 139
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or other, it is a very serious--or, indeed, an extraordinarily serious violation.
At this point one has reached an area where interferences can scarcely
ever be justified by strengthening the reasons for the interference. This
corresponds to the law of diminishing marginal utility (Alexy 2002, 103).
Constitutional rights gain overproportionally in strength as the intensity of
interferences increases. There exists something like a centre of resistence.
This serves to erect the "fire wall" that Habermas deems to be missing in
the theory of balancing. Thus, the balancing approach withstands both of
Habermas's objections.
Christian Albrechts University
Faculty of Law
Olshausenstraße 40
D-24118 Kiel
Germany
E-mail: alexy@law.uni-kiel.de
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Ed. M. D. A. Freeman, 205­21. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
------ . 2002. A Theory of Constitutional Rights. Trans. J. Rivers. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. (1st ed. 1985.)
Habermas, Jürgen. 1996. Between Facts and Norms. Trans. W. Rehg. Cambridge: Polity.
(1st ed. 1992.)
------ . 1998. Reply to Symposium Participants. In Habermas on Law and Democracy.
Ed. M. Rosenfeld and A. Arato, 381­452. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press.
140 Robert Alexy
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