PART I: THE LEGAL SYSTEM
Bodies of law
1 Read the excerpts below from the course catalogue of a British university’s
summer-school programme in law and answer these questions.
1 Who is each course intended for?
2 Which course deals with common law?
3 Which course studies the history of European law?
2 Match these bodies of law (1–3) with their definitions (a–c).
1 civil law a area of the law which deals with crimes and their punishments, including
fines and/or imprisonment (also penal law)
2 common law b 1) legal system developed from Roman codified law, established by a state
for its regulation; 2) area of the law concerned with non-criminal matters,
rights and remedies
3 criminal law c legal system which is the foundation of the legal systems of most of the
English-speaking countries of the world, based on customs, usage and court
decisions (also case law, judge-made law)
The practice of law
1
8
LAW 121: Introduction to English law
This course provides a general overview of
English law and the common-law system.
The course will look at the sources of law
and the law-making process, as well as at
the justice system in England. Students
will be introduced to selected areas of
English law, such as criminal law, contract
law and the law of torts. The relationship
between the English common law and EC
law will also be covered.
The course is designed for those
international students who will be studying
at English universities later in the academic
year. Other students with an interest in the
subject are also welcome to attend, as the
contact points between English law and
civil law are numerous. The seminars and
all course materials are in English.
LAW 221: Introduction to civil law
More individuals in the world solve their
legal problems in the framework of what is
called the civil-law system than in the
Anglo-Saxon case-law system. This course
will introduce students to the legal systems
of Western Europe that have most
influenced the civil-law legal systems in
the world. It aims to give students an
insight into a system based on the
superiority of written law. The course will
cover the application and development of
Roman law in Europe to the making of
national codes all over the world.
The course is intended to prepare students
who are going to study in a European
university for the different approaches to
law that they are likely to face in their year
abroad.
A B
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3 Complete the text below contrasting civil law, common law and criminal law
using the words in the box.
The term ‘civil law’ contrasts with both ‘common law’ and ‘criminal law’. In the
first sense of the term, civil law refers to a body of law 1) ......................... written
legal codes derived from fundamental normative principles. Legal 2) ..........................
are settled by reference to this code, which has been arrived at through
3) .......................... . Judges are 4) .......................... the written law and its 5) .......................... .
In contrast, common law was originally developed through 6) .......................... , at a
time before laws were written down. Common law is based on 7) ..........................
created by judicial decisions, which means that past 8) .......................... are taken
into consideration when cases are decided. It should be noted that today
common law is also 9) .......................... , i.e. in written form.
In the second sense of the term, civil law is distinguished from criminal law,
and refers to the body of law dealing with 10) .......................... matters, such as
breach of contract.
4 Which body of law, civil law or common law, is the basis of the legal system
of your jurisdiction?
Types of laws
The word refers generally to legal documents which set forth rules governing a
particular kind of activity.
5 Read the following short texts, which each contain a word used to talk about
types of laws. In which kind of document do you think each appeared? Match
each text (1–5) with its source (a–e).
law
9Unit 1 The practice of law
based on bound by codified custom disputes legislation
non-criminal precedents provisions rulings
a court ruling
b local government document
c newspaper
d parliamentary speech
e brochure for employees
1 (UK) by-law
The new EU Working Hours Directive
is reported to be causing controversy
amongst the medical profession.
The purpose of this Ordinance1 is to regulate
traffic upon the Streets and Public Places in the
Town of Hanville, New Hampshire, for the
promotion of the safety and welfare of the public.
These workplace safety and health regulations aredesigned to prevent personal injuries and illnessesfrom occurring in the workplace.
When a statute is plain and
unambiguous, the court must give effect
to the intention of the legislature as
expressed, rather than determine what
the law should or should not be.
1
2
3
4
5 Mr Speaker, I am pleased to have the opportunity to present the Dog Control
Amendment Bill to the House. It is a further milestone in meeting the
changing expectations we have about what is responsible dog ownership.
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1 appellate court (or court of
appeals, appeals court)
2 crown court
3 high court (or supreme
court)
a This is where a person under the age of 18 would be tried.
b This is the court of primary jurisdiction, where a case is heard
for the first time.
c This is where small crimes are tried in the UK.
d This is where law students argue hypothetical cases.
6 Find words in Exercise 5 which match these definitions. Consult the glossary if
necessary.
1 rules issued by a government agency to carry out the intent of the law;
authorised by a statute, and generally providing more detail on a subject
than the statute
2 law enacted by a town, city or county government
3 draft document before it is made into law
4 legal device used by the European Union to establish policies at the
European level to be incorporated into the laws of the Member States
5 formal written law enacted by a legislative body
7 Complete the sentences below using the words in the box.
1 The Town Council will conduct a public hearing regarding a proposed
.......................... concerning property tax.
2 According to the .......................... concerning working time, overtime work is work
which is officially ordered in excess of 40 hours in a working week or in
excess of eight hours a day.
3 Early this year, the government introduced a new .......................... on electronic
commerce to Parliament.
4 A number of changes have been made to the federal .......................... governing
the seizing of computers and the gathering of electronic evidence.
5 The European Union ....................... on Data Protection established legal principles
aimed at protecting personal data privacy and the free flow of data.
Speaking 1: Explaining what a law says
8 Choose a law in your jurisdiction that you are familiar with and explain what it
says using the verbs listed in the box above.
Types of courts
Courts can be distinguished with regard to the type of cases they hear.
9 Match each of the following types of court (1–9) with the explanation of what
happens there (a–i).
10
bill directive ordinance regulations statutes
There are several ways to refer to what a law says. Look at the following
sentences:
The law stipulates that corporations must have three governing bodies.
The law provides that a witness must be present.
The patent law specifies that the subject matter must be ‘useful’.
These verbs can also be used to express what a law says:
The law states / sets forth / determines / lays down / prescribes that ...
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4 juvenile court
5 lower court (or court of
first instance)
6 magistrates’ court
7 moot court
8 small-claims court
9 tribunal
e This is where a case is reviewed which has already been heard
in a lower court.
f This is where cases involving a limited amount of money are
handled.
g This is where serious criminal cases are heard by a judge and a
jury in the UK.
h This is where a group of specially chosen people examine legal
problems of a particular type, such as employment disputes.
i This is usually the highest court in a jurisdiction, the court of
last resort.
Speaking 2: Civil court systems
10 Work in small groups.
1 Describe the different types of court in your jurisdiction and the areas of
law they deal with.
2 Select one type of court in your jurisdiction and explain what kinds of cases
it deals with.
Persons in court
11 Complete this diagram with the
words and definitions below
(a–f).
11Unit 1 The practice of law
a expert witness
b appellant
c person who is sued in a civil lawsuit
d officer of the court whose duties include keeping order and assisting
the judge and jurors
e person who pleads cases in court
f hypothetical person who uses good judgment or common sense in handling
practical matters; such a person’s actions are the guide in determining
whether an individual’s actions were reasonable
COURT
1) ...........................
6) ...........................
5) ...........................
2) ...........................
public official who has
the authority to hear
and decide cases person who
initiates a civil
lawsuit
person who
appeals a decision
to a higher court
employee who takes
records, files papers
and issues processes
person who has
specialised knowledge
of a particular subject
who is called to
testify in court
judge
plaintiff/
petitioner
3) ...........................
4) ...........................
advocate
bailiff
clerk
reasonably
prudent person
defendant/
respondent
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16 Decide which of the nouns in Exercise 13 can go with these verbs. The first
one has been done for you.
1 draft an answer, a brief, a complaint, a motion, a pleading
2 issue
3 file (with)
4 serve (on someone)
5 submit
1 to draft a document
2 to issue a document
3 to file a document with an authority
4 to serve a document on someone
(or to serve someone with a
document)
5 to submit a document to an
authority
a to deliver a legal document to someone, demanding
that they go to a court of law or that they obey an order
b to produce a piece of writing or a plan that you intend
to change later
c to deliver a document formally for a decision to be
made by others
d to officially record something, especially in a court
of law
e to produce something official
Listening 1: Documents in court
12 XListen to a lawyer telling a client about some of the documents involved in
his case and answer these questions.
1 What claim has been filed against the client?
2 Will the case go to trial?
13 Match these documents (1–9) with their definitions (a–i).
1 affidavit a a document informing someone that they will be
involved in a legal process and instructing them what
they must do
2 answer b a document or set of documents containing the details
about a court case
3 brief c a document providing notification of a fact, claim or
proceeding
4 complaint d a formal written statement setting forth the cause of
action or the defence in a case
5 injunction e a written statement that somebody makes after they
have sworn officially to tell the truth, which might be
used as proof in court
6 motion f an application to a court to obtain an order, ruling or
decision
7 notice g an official order from a court for a person to stop
doing something
8 pleading h in civil law, the first pleading filed on behalf of a
plaintiff, which initiates a lawsuit, setting forth the
facts on which the claim is based
9 writ i the principal pleading by the defendant in response to
a complaint
14 XListen again and tick the documents that the lawyer mentions.
1 answer 2 affidavit 3 brief 4 complaint 5 injunction
6 motion 7 notice 8 pleading 9 writ
15 Match each verb used by the lawyer (1–5) with its definition (a–e).
12
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Legal Latin
Lawyers use Latin words and expressions when writing legal texts of every kind, from
statutes to emails.
The following excerpt is from the legal document known as an ‘answer’. It was submitted
to the court by the defendant from Listening 1.
17 Underline the common Latin words and phrases in the text. Do you know what
they mean?
13Unit 1 The practice of law
The claim for breach of contract fails inter alia to state facts sufficient to constitute a cause of
action, is uncertain as to what contract plaintiffs are suing on, and is uncertain in that it cannot
be determined whether the contract sued on is written, oral or implied by conduct.
The complaint alleges breach of contract as follows: ‘At all times herein mentioned, plaintiffs
were a part [sic] to the Construction Contract, as well as intended beneficiaries to each subcontract
for the construction of the house. In light of the facts set out above, defendants, and
each of them, have breached the Construction Contract.’
On its face, the claim alleges only that defendants ‘breached the Construction Contract’. But
LongCo is not a party to the Construction Contract. Therefore LongCo cannot be liable for its
breach. See e.g. GSI Enterprises, Inc. v. Warner (1993).
18 Match each Latin word or expression (1–8) with its English equivalent and the
explanation of its use (a–h).
19 Match each Latin term (1–10) with its English equivalent (a–j).
1 de facto a among other things
2 ipso facto b per year
3 inter alia c number of shareholders or directors who have to be present
at a board meeting so that it can be validly conducted
4 per annum d in fact
5 pro forma e of one’s own right; able to exercise one’s own legal rights
6 pro rata f proportionally
7 quorum g by that very fact itself
8 sui juris h as a matter of form
9 ultra vires i as follows
10 videlicet (viz.) j beyond the legal powers of a person or a body
1 ad hoc
2 et alii (et al.)
3 et cetera (etc.)
4 exempli gratia (e.g.)
5 id est (i.e.)
6 per se
7 sic
8 versus (vs. or v.)
a thus (used after a word to indicate the original, usually incorrect,
spelling or grammar in a text)
b for example (used before one or more examples are given)
c for this purpose (often used as an adjective before a noun)
d against (versus is abbreviated to ‘v.’ in case citations, but to ‘vs.’ in all
other instances)
e and others (usually used to shorten a list of people, often a list of
authors, appellants or defendants)
f and other things of the same kind (used to shorten a list of similar items)
g by itself (often used after a noun to indicate the thing itself)
h that is (used to signal an explanation or paraphrase of a word preceding it)
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1 advise
2 draft
3 litigate
4 practise
5 represent
6 research
b Choose three ‘verb + noun’ pairs from above and write sentences using
them.
23 Choose the words from the box which can be combined with the word lawyer to
describe different types of lawyer. Say what each one does.
21 Discuss these questions.
1 Does your native language have more than one word for lawyer? Do they
correspond to the different English words for lawyer mentioned above?
If not, how do the concepts differ?
2 What is each type of legal practitioner in your jurisdiction entitled to do?
3 What English term do you use to describe your job or the job you would like
to do?
22 a Combine the nouns in the box with the verbs below to make combinations to
describe the work lawyers do. Some of the verbs go with more than one noun.
14
Anna: So, what are you two planning to do later, when you’ve completed your degree?
Daniel: Well, right now, I’m planning to become a 1) .......................... , because I’d really like to plead
cases in court.
Anna: You’ve been watching too many of those American films, when the handsome young
2) .......................... wins the case against the big, bad corporation!
Daniel: Very funny. I just like the idea of arguing a case. I think it’d be exciting. What about you?
Anna: Actually, I’d like to work for a big corporation and advise them on their legal affairs, as
3) .......................... . I’ve heard the work can be very challenging. What are your plans, Jacob?
Jacob: I’m thinking about becoming a 4) .......................... . I’m not that interested in pleading cases in
court. I’d rather do research and give legal advice – I think that’d suit me better.
cases clients contracts corporations decisions defendants
disputes law legislation
bar corporate defence government patent practitioner
public-sector sole tax trial
PART II: A CAREER IN THE LAW
Listening 2: Lawyers
20 XSeveral different words can be used to refer to a lawyer. Listen to three
law students in the UK talking about the kind of work they would like to do
when they have completed their law studies. Write the correct word for lawyer
in the gaps.
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Legal education: A call to the Bar
In English-speaking countries, the Bar is a term for the legal profession itself, while a bar
association is the association which regulates the profession. A person who qualifies to
practise law is admitted to the Bar; on the other hand, to disbar a lawyer is to make him
or her unable to practise law.
The following text is an excerpt from a guide written for school leavers about courses of
study in English-speaking countries. This section of the guide deals with the study of law
and the requirements for entering the legal profession in the UK and the USA.
24 Read the text and say whether legal education in your country is more similar
to the UK or the US model.
15Unit 1 The practice of law
25 Find terms with the word bar in the introduction to this section and in the text
above which match these definitions.
1 a lawyer who is qualified to plead on behalf of clients
2 in the UK, a training course which enables people who wish to become
barristers and who have registered with the Inns of Court to acquire the
skills and knowledge to prepare them for the specialised training of the
pupillage
3 a ceremony held at the end of this training course, when a candidate enters
the profession
4 organisation regulating the legal profession
5 in the USA, an important test taken by law-school graduates which, when
passed, qualifies a person to practise law
6 granted entrance to the legal profession
7 to compel a lawyer to stop practising law due to an offence committed
Studying law in the UK
In the UK, a legal education usually begins with the completion of a
bachelor degree in law, known as an LLB, which usually takes three years.
In the subsequent vocational stage, a person who wishes to become a
barrister joins one of the Inns of Court before beginning the Bar
Vocational Course.The completion of this stage is marked by a
ceremony referred to as the call to the Bar.A third stage, known as
pupillage, is a year-long apprenticeship, usually at a set of barristers’
chambers, which customarily consists of groups of 20–60 barristers.
Similarly, a person wishing to become a solicitor must also complete
three stages: the first stage involves gaining a law degree; the second stage
requires passing a one-year Legal Practice Course (LPC); and the final
stage entails working for two years as a trainee solicitor with a firm of
solicitors or in the legal department of a local authority or large company.
Studying law in the USA
In the USA, a legal education comprises four years of undergraduate study
followed by three years of law school.A law-school graduate receives the
degree of juris doctor (J.D.). In order to qualify as a lawyer, a lawschool
graduate must pass the bar examination.
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A lawyer’s curriculum vitae
26 Read the following CV (curriculum vitae)1 of a young British lawyer and answer these questions.
1 Where did he work in summer 2002?
2 What languages does he speak?
3 Where did he complete his first degree?
4 What was his main duty at the European Commission?
5 What is he doing now?
16
1 (US) résumé or resume
Linus Walker
Address: Frejg 17, SE-118 25, Stockholm, Sweden
Email address: linuswalker@eli.se
EDUCATION
2005 – present University of Stockholm, Sweden
Master’s Programme in Law and Information Technology
Course covers the legal aspects of Information Technology and the legal
implications of the use of the Internet
2000–2004 University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
LLB (English & French law degree)
Course included all the core legal subjects, with a focus on contract law,
company law, common law, property law and European law
2002–2003 Université Paris X, Paris, France
DEUG (French law degree), Nanterre
Part of the degree programme at University of Essex included an intensive
course in French. Among subjects studied: European Community Law,
Information Law, Civil Law and Penal Law
LEGAL WORK EXPERIENCE
June 2004– European Commission, Brussels, Belgium
February 2005 Legal Assistant within the Legal Department of the Service Commune Relex
(SCR). Drafting opinions in English and French dealing with contracts awarded
for projects
Summers G. R. Foster & Co. Solicitors, Cambridge, UK
2001–2004 Liaison with clients; conducting research into multiple legal areas,
including family law, tort law and contracts; assisting with trial preparation
Summer 2000 Westlake Chambers, Bath, UK
Mini-pupillage, involving shadowing a number of counsel; assisted in
daily activities
SKILLS AND QUALIFICATIONS
Languages: Native English speaker; fluent in French (written and spoken);
upper-intermediate Swedish
Computing: Proficient in Word, Windows, email
Membership: The Law Society
Strong researching and writing skills
INTERESTS
Skiing, French history, chess
References available upon request
Nationality: British
Date of birth: 12 May 1982
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Secretary
Listening 3: Law firm structure
27 XLinus Walker has applied for a position at a law firm. Listen to his job
interview and answer these questions.
1 What does Mr Nichols say about the atmosphere of the firm?
2 What does Linus say about the size of the firm?
28 XListen again and complete this organigram of the firm using the words in
the box.
17Unit 1 The practice of law
Associate Full Partners Mr Robertson Paralegal Real Property Salaried Partner
1) ............................... , Mr Michaels
Senior Partners
Ms Graham, Mr Nichols
2) ...............................
Associate
6) ...............................
Paralegal
Secretary
Associate
Associate
5) ...............................
Paralegal
Paralegal
Associate
3) ............................... Department
Salaried Partner
Debtor–Creditor Department
4) ...............................
Speaking 3: Describing a law firm
29 Look at the following phrases used by Mr Nichols to describe the firm. Which
can be used to speak of a department or company, and which of a person?
Which can be used for both?
... is/are headed by ...
... is/are assisted by ...
... is/are managed by ...
... is/are responsible for ...
... is/are in charge of ...
... report to ...
30 Using the phrases in Exercise 29, describe the structure of a law firm with
which you are familiar or the one just described in Listening 3. Refer to the
positions and duties of the personnel.
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