Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
2001
Text adopted by the Commission at its fifty-third session, in 2001, and submitted to the
General Assembly as a part of the Commission’s report covering the work of that session. The
report, which also contains commentaries on the draft articles, appears in Yearbook of the
International Law Commission, 2001, vol. II (Part Two). Text reproduced as it appears in the
annex to General Assembly resolution 56/83 of 12 December 2001, and corrected by document
A/56/49(Vol. I)/Corr.4.
Copyright © United Nations
2005
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
PART ONE
THE INTERNATIONALLY WRONGFUL ACT OF A STATE
CHAPTER I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Article l
Responsibility of a State for its internationally wrongful acts
Every internationally wrongful act of a State entails the international responsibility of that State.
Article 2
Elements of an internationally wrongful act of a State
There is an internationally wrongful act of a State when conduct consisting of an action or
omission:
(a) is attributable to the State under international law; and
(b) constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the State.
Article 3
Characterization of an act of a State as internationally wrongful
The characterization of an act of a State as internationally wrongful is governed by international
law. Such characterization is not affected by the characterization of the same act as lawful by internal
law.
CHAPTER II
ATTRIBUTION OF CONDUCT TO A STATE
Article 4
Conduct of organs of a State
1. The conduct of any State organ shall be considered an act of that State under international law,
whether the organ exercises legislative, executive, judicial or any other functions, whatever position it
holds in the organization of the State, and whatever its character as an organ of the central Government
or of a territorial unit of the State.
2. An organ includes any person or entity which has that status in accordance with the internal law
of the State.
Article 5
Conduct of persons or entities exercising elements
of governmental authority
The conduct of a person or entity which is not an organ of the State under article 4 but which is
empowered by the law of that State to exercise elements of the governmental authority shall be
considered an act of the State under international law, provided the person or entity is acting in that
capacity in the particular instance.
Article 6
Conduct of organs placed at the disposal of a State
by another State
The conduct of an organ placed at the disposal of a State by another State shall be considered an
act of the former State under international law if the organ is acting in the exercise of elements of the
governmental authority of the State at whose disposal it is placed.
Article 7
Excess of authority or contravention of instructions
The conduct of an organ of a State or of a person or entity empowered to exercise elements of the
governmental authority shall be considered an act of the State under international law if the organ,
person or entity acts in that capacity, even if it exceeds its authority or contravenes instructions.
Article 8
Conduct directed or controlled by a State
The conduct of a person or group of persons shall be considered an act of a State under
international law if the person or group of persons is in fact acting on the instructions of, or under the
direction or control of, that State in carrying out the conduct.
Article 9
Conduct carried out in the absence or default
of the official authorities
The conduct of a person or group of persons shall be considered an act of a State under
international law if the person or group of persons is in fact exercising elements of the governmental
authority in the absence or default of the official authorities and in circumstances such as to call for the
exercise of those elements of authority.
Article 10
Conduct of an insurrectional or other movement
1. The conduct of an insurrectional movement which becomes the new Government of a State
shall be considered an act of that State under international law.
2. The conduct of a movement, insurrectional or other, which succeeds in establishing a new State
in part of the territory of a pre-existing State or in a territory under its administration shall be considered
an act of the new State under international law.
3. This article is without prejudice to the attribution to a State of any conduct, however related to
that of the movement concerned, which is to be considered an act of that State by virtue of articles 4
to 9.
Article 11
Conduct acknowledged and adopted by a State as its own
Conduct which is not attributable to a State under the preceding articles shall nevertheless be
considered an act of that State under international law if and to the extent that the State acknowledges
and adopts the conduct in question as its own.
CHAPTER III
BREACH OF AN INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATION
Article 12
Existence of a breach of an international obligation
There is a breach of an international obligation by a State when an act of that State is not in
conformity with what is required of it by that obligation, regardless of its origin or character.
Article 13
International obligation in force for a State
An act of a State does not constitute a breach of an international obligation unless the State is
bound by the obligation in question at the time the act occurs.
Article 14
Extension in time of the breach of an international obligation
1. The breach of an international obligation by an act of a State not having a continuing character
occurs at the moment when the act is performed, even if its effects continue.
2. The breach of an international obligation by an act of a State having a continuing character
extends over the entire period during which the act continues and remains not in conformity with the
international obligation.
3. The breach of an international obligation requiring a State to prevent a given event occurs when
the event occurs and extends over the entire period during which the event continues and remains not in
conformity with that obligation.
Article 15
Breach consisting of a composite act
1. The breach of an international obligation by a State through a series of actions or omissions
defined in aggregate as wrongful occurs when the action or omission occurs which, taken with the other
actions or omissions, is sufficient to constitute the wrongful act.
2. In such a case, the breach extends over the entire period starting with the first of the actions or
omissions of the series and lasts for as long as these actions or omissions are repeated and remain not in
conformity with the international obligation.
CHAPTER IV
RESPONSIBILITY OF A STATE IN CONNECTION WITH THE
ACT OF ANOTHER STATE
Article 16
Aid or assistance in the commission of an
internationally wrongful act
A State which aids or assists another State in the commission of an internationally wrongful act by
the latter is internationally responsible for doing so if:
(a) that State does so with knowledge of the circumstances of the internationally wrongful act; and
(b) the act would be internationally wrongful if committed by that State.
Article 17
Direction and control exercised over the commission
of an internationally wrongful act
A State which directs and controls another State in the commission of an internationally wrongful
act by the latter is internationally responsible for that act if:
(a) that State does so with knowledge of the circumstances of the internationally wrongful act; and
(b) the act would be internationally wrongful if committed by that State.
Article 18
Coercion of another State
A State which coerces another State to commit an act is internationally responsible for that act if:
(a) the act would, but for the coercion, be an internationally wrongful act of the coerced State; and
(b) the coercing State does so with knowledge of the circumstances of the act.
Article 19
Effect of this chapter
This chapter is without prejudice to the international responsibility, under other provisions of
these articles, of the State which commits the act in question, or of any other State.
CHAPTER V
CIRCUMSTANCES PRECLUDING WRONGFULNESS
Article 20
Consent
Valid consent by a State to the commission of a given act by another State precludes the
wrongfulness of that act in relation to the former State to the extent that the act remains within the limits
of that consent.
Article 21
Self-defence
The wrongfulness of an act of a State is precluded if the act constitutes a lawful measure of selfdefence
taken in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations.
Article 22
Countermeasures in respect of an internationally
wrongful act
The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an international obligation towards
another State is precluded if and to the extent that the act constitutes a countermeasure taken against the
latter State in accordance with chapter II of part three.
Article 23
Force majeure
1. The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an international obligation of that
State is precluded if the act is due to force majeure, that is the occurrence of an irresistible force or of an
unforeseen event, beyond the control of the State, making it materially impossible in the circumstances
to perform the obligation.
2. Paragraph 1 does not apply if:
(a) the situation of force majeure is due, either alone or in combination with other factors, to the
conduct of the State invoking it; or
(b) the State has assumed the risk of that situation occurring.
Article 24
Distress
1. The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an international obligation of that
State is precluded if the author of the act in question has no other reasonable way, in a situation of
distress, of saving the author’s life or the lives of other persons entrusted to the author’s care.
2. Paragraph 1 does not apply if:
(a) the situation of distress is due, either alone or in combination with other factors, to the conduct of
the State invoking it; or
(b) the act in question is likely to create a comparable or greater peril.
Article 25
Necessity
1. Necessity may not be invoked by a State as a ground for precluding the wrongfulness of an act
not in conformity with an international obligation of that State unless the act:
(a) is the only way for the State to safeguard an essential interest against a grave and imminent peril;
and
(b) does not seriously impair an essential interest of the State or States towards which the obligation
exists, or of the international community as a whole.
2. In any case, necessity may not be invoked by a State as a ground for precluding wrongfulness
if:
(a) the international obligation in question excludes the possibility of invoking necessity; or
(b) the State has contributed to the situation of necessity.
Article 26
Compliance with peremptory norms
Nothing in this chapter precludes the wrongfulness of any act of a State which is not in
conformity with an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law.
Article 27
Consequences of invoking a circumstance
precluding wrongfulness
The invocation of a circumstance precluding wrongfulness in accordance with this chapter is
without prejudice to:
(a) compliance with the obligation in question, if and to the extent that the circumstance precluding
wrongfulness no longer exists;
(b) the question of compensation for any material loss caused by the act in question.
PART TWO
CONTENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY OF A STATE
CHAPTER I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Article 28
Legal consequences of an internationally wrongful act
The international responsibility of a State which is entailed by an internationally wrongful act in
accordance with the provisions of part one involves legal consequences as set out in this part.
Article 29
Continued duty of performance
The legal consequences of an internationally wrongful act under this part do not affect the
continued duty of the responsible State to perform the obligation breached.
Article 30
Cessation and non-repetition
The State responsible for the internationally wrongful act is under an obligation:
(a) to cease that act, if it is continuing;
(b) to offer appropriate assurances and guarantees of non-repetition, if circumstances so require.
Article 31
Reparation
1. The responsible State is under an obligation to make full reparation for the injury caused by the
internationally wrongful act.
2. Injury includes any damage, whether material or moral, caused by the internationally wrongful
act of a State.
Article 32
Irrelevance of internal law
The responsible State may not rely on the provisions of its internal law as justification for failure
to comply with its obligations under this part.
Article 33
Scope of international obligations set out in this part
1. The obligations of the responsible State set out in this part may be owed to another State, to
several States, or to the international community as a whole, depending in particular on the character and
content of the international obligation and on the circumstances of the breach.
2. This part is without prejudice to any right, arising from the international responsibility of a
State, which may accrue directly to any person or entity other than a State.
CHAPTER II
REPARATION FOR INJURY
Article 34
Forms of reparation
Full reparation for the injury caused by the internationally wrongful act shall take the form of
restitution, compensation and satisfaction, either singly or in combination, in accordance with the
provisions of this chapter.
Article 35
Restitution
A State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under an obligation to make restitution,
that is, to re-establish the situation which existed before the wrongful act was committed, provided and
to the extent that restitution:
(a) is not materially impossible;
(b) does not involve a burden out of all proportion to the benefit deriving from restitution instead of
compensation.
Article 36
Compensation
1. The State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under an obligation to compensate
for the damage caused thereby, insofar as such damage is not made good by restitution.
2. The compensation shall cover any financially assessable damage including loss of profits
insofar as it is established.
Article 37
Satisfaction
1. The State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under an obligation to give
satisfaction for the injury caused by that act insofar as it cannot be made good by restitution or
compensation.
2. Satisfaction may consist in an acknowledgement of the breach, an expression of regret, a
formal apology or another appropriate modality.
3. Satisfaction shall not be out of proportion to the injury and may not take a form humiliating to
the responsible State.
Article 38
Interest
1. Interest on any principal sum due under this chapter shall be payable when necessary in order
to ensure full reparation. The interest rate and mode of calculation shall be set so as to achieve that
result.
2. Interest runs from the date when the principal sum should have been paid until the date the
obligation to pay is fulfilled.
Article 39
Contribution to the injury
In the determination of reparation, account shall be taken of the contribution to the injury by
wilful or negligent action or omission of the injured State or any person or entity in relation to whom
reparation is sought.
CHAPTER III
SERIOUS BREACHES OF OBLIGATIONS UNDER PEREMPTORY
NORMS OF GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW
Article 40
Application of this chapter
1. This chapter applies to the international responsibility which is entailed by a serious breach by
a State of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law.
2. A breach of such an obligation is serious if it involves a gross or systematic failure by the
responsible State to fulfil the obligation.
Article 41
Particular consequences of a serious breach
of an obligation under this chapter
1. States shall cooperate to bring to an end through lawful means any serious breach within the
meaning of article 40.
2. No State shall recognize as lawful a situation created by a serious breach within the meaning of
article 40, nor render aid or assistance in maintaining that situation.
3. This article is without prejudice to the other consequences referred to in this part and to such
further consequences that a breach to which this chapter applies may entail under international law.
PART THREE
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL
RESPONSIBILITY OF A STATE
CHAPTER I
INVOCATION OF THE RESPONSIBILITY OF A STATE
Article 42
Invocation of responsibility by an injured State
A State is entitled as an injured State to invoke the responsibility of another State if the obligation
breached is owed to:
(a) that State individually; or
(b) a group of States including that State, or the international community as a whole, and the breach
of the obligation:
(i) specially affects that State; or
(ii) is of such a character as radically to change the position of all the other States to which the
obligation is owed with respect to the further performance of the obligation.
Article 43
Notice of claim by an injured State
1. An injured State which invokes the responsibility of another State shall give notice of its claim
to that State.
2. The injured State may specify in particular:
(a) the conduct that the responsible State should take in order to cease the wrongful act, if it is
continuing;
(b) what form reparation should take in accordance with the provisions of part two.
Article 44
Admissibility of claims
The responsibility of a State may not be invoked if:
(a) the claim is not brought in accordance with any applicable rule relating to the nationality of
claims;
(b) the claim is one to which the rule of exhaustion of local remedies applies and any available and
effective local remedy has not been exhausted.
Article 45
Loss of the right to invoke responsibility
The responsibility of a State may not be invoked if:
(a) the injured State has validly waived the claim;
(b) the injured State is to be considered as having, by reason of its conduct, validly acquiesced in the
lapse of the claim.
Article 46
Plurality of injured States
Where several States are injured by the same internationally wrongful act, each injured State may
separately invoke the responsibility of the State which has committed the internationally wrongful act.
Article 47
Plurality of responsible States
1. Where several States are responsible for the same internationally wrongful act, the
responsibility of each State may be invoked in relation to that act.
2. Paragraph 1:
(a) does not permit any injured State to recover, by way of compensation, more than the damage it
has suffered;
(b) is without prejudice to any right of recourse against the other responsible States.
Article 48
Invocation of responsibility by a State other
than an injured State
1. Any State other than an injured State is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State in
accordance with paragraph 2 if:
(a) the obligation breached is owed to a group of States including that State, and is established for the
protection of a collective interest of the group; or
(b) the obligation breached is owed to the international community as a whole.
2. Any State entitled to invoke responsibility under paragraph 1 may claim from the responsible
State:
(a) cessation of the internationally wrongful act, and assurances and guarantees of non-repetition in
accordance with article 30; and
(b) performance of the obligation of reparation in accordance with the preceding articles, in the
interest of the injured State or of the beneficiaries of the obligation breached.
3. The requirements for the invocation of responsibility by an injured State under articles 43, 44
and 45 apply to an invocation of responsibility by a State entitled to do so under paragraph 1.
CHAPTER II
COUNTERMEASURES
Article 49
Object and limits of countermeasures
1. An injured State may only take countermeasures against a State which is responsible for an
internationally wrongful act in order to induce that State to comply with its obligations under part two.
2. Countermeasures are limited to the non-performance for the time being of international
obligations of the State taking the measures towards the responsible State.
3. Countermeasures shall, as far as possible, be taken in such a way as to permit the resumption of
performance of the obligations in question.
Article 50
Obligations not affected by countermeasures
1. Countermeasures shall not affect:
(a) the obligation to refrain from the threat or use of force as embodied in the Charter of the United
Nations;
(b) obligations for the protection of fundamental human rights;
(c) obligations of a humanitarian character prohibiting reprisals;
(d) other obligations under peremptory norms of general international law.
2. A State taking countermeasures is not relieved from fulfilling its obligations:
(a) under any dispute settlement procedure applicable between it and the responsible State;
(b) to respect the inviolability of diplomatic or consular agents, premises, archives and documents.
Article 51
Proportionality
Countermeasures must be commensurate with the injury suffered, taking into account the gravity
of the internationally wrongful act and the rights in question.
Article 52
Conditions relating to resort to countermeasures
1. Before taking countermeasures, an injured State shall:
(a) call upon the responsible State, in accordance with article 43, to fulfil its obligations under part
two;
(b) notify the responsible State of any decision to take countermeasures and offer to negotiate with
that State.
2. Notwithstanding paragraph 1 (b), the injured State may take such urgent countermeasures as
are necessary to preserve its rights.
3.Countermeasures may not be taken, and if already taken must be suspended without undue
delay if:
(a) the internationally wrongful act has ceased; and
(b) the dispute is pending before a court or tribunal which has the authority to make decisions binding
on the parties.
4. Paragraph 3 does not apply if the responsible State fails to implement the dispute settlement
procedures in good faith.
Article 53
Termination of countermeasures
Countermeasures shall be terminated as soon as the responsible State has complied with its
obligations under part two in relation to the internationally wrongful act.
Article 54
Measures taken by States other than an injured State
This chapter does not prejudice the right of any State, entitled under article 48, paragraph 1, to
invoke the responsibility of another State, to take lawful measures against that State to ensure cessation
of the breach and reparation in the interest of the injured State or of the beneficiaries of the obligation
breached.
PART FOUR
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Article 55
Lex specialis
These articles do not apply where and to the extent that the conditions for the existence of an
internationally wrongful act or the content or implementation of the international responsibility of a
State are governed by special rules of international law.
Article 56
Questions of State responsibility not regulated
by these articles
The applicable rules of international law continue to govern questions concerning the
responsibility of a State for an internationally wrongful act to the extent that they are not regulated by
these articles.
Article 57
Responsibility of an international organization
These articles are without prejudice to any question of the responsibility under international law
of an international organization, or of any State for the conduct of an international organization.
Article 58
Individual responsibility
These articles are without prejudice to any question of the individual responsibility under
international law of any person acting on behalf of a State.
Article 59
Charter of the United Nations
These articles are without prejudice to the Charter of the United Nations.
_____________