1 Metabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides DNA replication Ó Department of Biochemistry 2013 (E.T.) 2 Biosynthesis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides • Dietary purine and pyrimidine bases (nucleoproteins) are poorly absorbed and cannot be used for synthesis • Humans depend on the endogenous synthesis of purines and pyrimidines • All cells need ribonucleosides, deoxyribonucleosides and their phosphates 3 Significance of folic acid for synthesis of bases Folate For human is essential: Sources: green food, liver, food yeast, egg yelow N N O H N N C H 2 N H 2 N C O N H C H C H 2 C H 2 C O O - C O O - H The effective form in organism of human is tetrahydrofolate. Some bacteria can synthesize folate. It is growth factor for them 4 (dihydro)folate reductase (catalyzes the both reactions in animals and some microorganisms) Folate tetrahydrofolate dihydrofolate NADPH + H+ NADP NADP NADPH + H+ N N O H N H 2 N C O N H C H C H 2 C H 2 C O O - C O O - H C H 2 N N H Formation of tetrahydrofolate + + 5 Methotrexate (anticancer drug) Inhibitors of (dihydro)folate reductase: N N Trimethoprim (bacteriostatics) it inhibits bacterial dihydrofolate reductase 6 •Sulfonamides (e.g. Sulfamethoxazol) are structural analogs of p-aminobenzoic acid. •p-aminobenzoic acid is necessary for bacterial synthesis of folic acid •Folic acid is a growth factor for bacterias. Sulfonamides act as competitve inhibitors of the synthesis. Sulfonamides stop growth of bacterias dependent on folic acid (streptococcus, haemophilus etc.) Inhibitors of folate synthesis c c p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) sulfanilamide 7 N N O H N H 2 N C O N H C H C H 2 C H 2 C O O - C O O - C H 2 N N H C H 2 N-5,N-10- methylen H4F – synthesis of thymine N N O H N H 2 N C O N H C H C H 2 C H 2 C O O - C O O - C H 2 N N H C H O H N-10-formyl H4F – synthesis of purine 5 10 1 3 Using of tetrahydrofolate in synthesis of purines and pyrimidines 8 Significance of glutamine for biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines - It is donor of amino group MCj00787110000[1] Why the cells with high mitotic rate consume high amounts of glutamine? 9 Required for synthesis of: purine nucleotides pyrimidine nukleotides NAD+, NADP+ PRPP – phosphoribosyl diphosphate Activated pentose 10 Ribose-5P + ATP ® PRPP + AMP PRPP-synthase Synthesis of phosphoribosyl diphosphate (PRPP) (kinase) 11 Differences in purine and pyrimidine synthesis Purines Synthesis starts with PRPP, purine ring is built step-by-step with C-1 of PRPP as a primer Pyrimidines The pyrimidine ring is synthetized before ribose is added 12 Biosynthesis of pyrimidines N O H O 1 2 3 4 5 6 N Ribose phosphate glutamin HCO3- •2. aspartate • 3. PRPP Orotidin monophosphate is the first intermediate By decarboxylation is formed uridin monophosphate Origin of atoms in pyrimidine ring } karbamoyl-P •1. 13 CYTOPLASMA • 1 Glutamin + 2 ATP + HCO3- ® carbamoylphosphate + glutamate + 2 ADP + Pi • Synthesis of carbamoyl phosphate Compare with the reaction in the synthesis of urea - mitochondria Carbamoyl phosphate synthase II Reaction is the most regulated step 14 Comparision of carbamoyl phosphate synthetases Enzyme typ Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II Localization in the cell mitochondria cytoplasma Metabolic pathway synthesis of urea synthesis of pyrimidine Source of nitrogen ammonia glutamin Regulation activation: N-acetylglutamate inhibition: UTP activation: ATP 15 Steps in pyrimidine biosynthesis - in detail Carbamoyl aspartate dihydroorotate orotate Orotidine monophophate PRPP Uridine monophosphate Kytice 16 ATP Biosynthesis of UTP a CTP UMP UDP ® ADP ATP ADP + P glutamin glutamate CTP ATP ADP UTP Phosphorylation using ATP 17 dUMP dTMP P P CH2- FH4 FH2 H4F is required for methylation Formation of dTMP (methylation) 18 UDP ® dUDP ® dUMP TMP Methylene –H4F DHF serine Thymidylátsynthasa (enzym závislý na folátu) H4F Dihydrofolátreduktasa glycin Formation of dTMP NADPH NADP Methylene group bonded to H4F is during the transfer to dUMP reduced to methyl group 19 UDP ® dUDP ® dUMP TMP Thymidylate synthase (folate dependent enzyme) Dihydrofolate reductase Formation of TMP Methylene –H4F H2F serin H4F glycin NADPH NADP After release of methylene H4F becomes oxidized to H2F 20 N N O H N H 2 N C O N H C H C H 2 C H 2 C O O - C O O - C H 2 N N H C H 2 N N O H N H 2 N C O N H C H C H 2 C H 2 C O O - C O O - C H 2 NH N NADPH + H+ NADP+ CH2 CH2-H4F H2F H4F H H H H Dihydrofolate reductase 21 (Dihydro)folate reductase reduces dihydrofolate (H2F) back to tetrahydrofolate (H4F) Why metotrexate (amethopterine) functions as antineoplastic agent? MCj00787110000[1] 22 Many antineoplastic drugs inhibit nucleotide metabolism •The development of drugs with selective toxicity for cancer cells is difficult because cancer cells are too similar to normal cells •Therefore, agents that are toxic for cancer cells are toxic also for normal cells •Cancer cells do, however, have a higher mitotic rate than normal cells •Therefore they have a higher requirement for DNA synthesis •Most antineoplastic drugs act as antagonists of nucleotide synthesis 23 Dihydrofolate reductase - target of anti-tumour therapy. Aminopterin (4-amino-dihydrofolate) and methotrexate (amethopterin, 4-amino-10-methyl-dihydrofolate) are anti-folate drugs - potent competitive inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase. They bind the enzyme 1000x more tightly than folate, they function as competitive inhibitors. 24 Also thymidylate synthase can be inhibited Cytostatic effect – cell division is stopped Fluorouracil is converted in vivo into fluorodeoxyuridylate It irreversibly inhibits thymidylate synthase (suicide inhibition) All antineoplastic drugs are toxic not only for cancer cells but for all rapidly dividing cells, including those in bone marrow, intstinal mucosa and hair bulbs. Therefore, bone marrow depression, diarrhea, and hair loss are common side effects of cancer chemotherapy. 25 Formation of pyrimidine nucleotides by salvage pathway (using of free bases for the synthesis) Uracil or Cytosine Ribose-1-phosphate Pi Uridine or Cytidine Thymine Deoxyribose-1-phosphate Pi Thymidine 1. Relatively non-specific pyrimidine nucleoside phosphorylase converts the pyrimidine bases to their nucleosides 26 •thymidine + ATP ® TMP + ADP •cytidine + ATP ® CMP + ADP •deoxycytidine + ATP ® dCMP + ADP •uridine + ATP ® UMP + ADP 2. Formation of nucleotides from nucleosides by action of kinases 27 Regulation of pyrimidine nucleotides biosynthesis • Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II (CPS II): inhibition by UTP , activation by PRPP q Allosteric inhibition: Activity of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase is also regulated by the cell cycle. At S-phase –CPS II becomes more sensitive to PRPP activation and less sensitive to UTP inhibition. At the and of S-phase inhibition by UTP is more pronounced and activation by PRPP is reduced 28 Degradation of pyrimidine nucleotides Free bases are converted to: NH3, CO2, b-alanine, (b -aminoisobutyrate) Soluble metabolites – excretion in urine deamination reduction b-alanin b-aminoisobutyrate from thymine Dephosphorylation and cleavage of nucleosides. 29 Ribose-5-phosphate 3 glycin HCO3- aspartate formyl-H4F glutamine 1 PRPP formyl-H4F 2 4 6 7 8 Biosynthesis of purine nucleotides (multienzyme complex) Inosine-5-P (IMP) 5 cytoplasma Mainly in liver N H N O N N C C C > 30 Biosynthesis of IMP in more details Gln Glu Inosine monophosphate ATP, glycin ADP Formyl-THF THF Glu Gln H2O CO2 asp formylTHF THF H2O fosforibosylamin PRPP 31 Inosine-5-P (IMP) Serves as the branchpoint from which adenine and guanine nucleotides can be produced aspartate, GTP amination AMP oxidation amination GMP Glutamine, ATP XMP mycofenolic acid N N O N N H ribose-5-P 32 Mycophenolic acid •Potent, reversible, uncompetitive inhibitor of IMP dehydrogenase • Used in preventing graft rejection • It blocks de novo formation of GMP ® supress the proliferation of T and B cells 33 Synthesis of AMP and GMP (more detailed) IMP Asp GTP GDP + Pi fumarate AMP NAD+ NADH + H+ ATP AMP + PPi XMP GMP Gln Glu H2O N N O N N R i b o se H P N N N C H C H 2 C O O C O O N N R i b o se P - - N N N H 2 N N R i b o se P N N O O N N R i b o se H P N N O H 2 N N N R i b o se H P H H 34 Inhibitors of purine synthesis (antineoplastic agents) • inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase • 6-mercaptopurine- inhibition of conversion of IMP to AMP and GMP mercaptopurine 35 Synthesis of purine nucleotides by salvage pathway Extrahepatal tissues Recyclation of free bases Purine + PRPP ® purine nucleotide monphosphate + PP Phosphoribosyltransferases: Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase Hypoxantine phosphoribosyltransferase Recyclation of purine bases by phosphoribosyltransferase. Purine nucleotides are sythesized preferentially by salvage pathway, so long as the free bases are available. 36 Formation of purine nucleotides by the action of phosphoribosyl transferases 37 Deficiency of phosphoribosyl transferase results in Lesch-Nyhan syndrom • X-linked hereditary disease • purine bases cannot be salvaged • accumulation of PRPP • overproduction of purine bases that are degraded to uric acid • accumulation of uric acid – gout • neurologic problems : mental retardation, self-mutilation 38 Synthesis of nucleoside diphosphates and nucleoside triphosphates Nucleoside monophosphate Nucleoside diphosphate Nucleoside triphosphate ATP ADP ATP ADP kinases 39 Regulation of purine nucleotide biosynthesis • inhibition of PRPP-glutamylamidotransferase by AMP, GMP, IMP (end-products), activation by PRPP IMP AMP GMP GMP Ä AMP Ä 1. 2. The main factor is availability of PRPP 40 Formation od 2-deoxyribonucleotides (purine and pyrimidine) Nucleoside diphosphate ® 2-deoxynucleoside diphosphate reduction Thioredoxin, thioredoxin reductase and NADPH are required H Thioredoxin reductase is selenoenzyme deoxygenation 41 Hydroxyurea • Hydroxyurea inhibits ribonucleotide reductase Synthesis of deoxyribonucleotides is blocked Treatment some of some cancers 42 Degradation of purine nucleotides AMP,GMP, IMP,XMP 5-nucleotidase guanosine, inosine, xantosine + Pi nukleosidfosforylasa Adenosine + Pi, guanin, hypoxantin, xantin + riboso-1-P adenosindeaminasa inosin nukleosidfosforylasa removal of phosphate In liver nucleosides 43 AMP,GMP, IMP,XMP 5-nucleotidase guanosine, inosine, xantosine + Pi nucleoside phosphorylase Adenosine + Pi, guanine, hypoxantine, xantine + ribose-1-P inosine nucleoside phosphorylase Degradation of purine nucleotides Nucleotides Nucleosides Bases NH3 Adenosine deaminase Phosphorolytic cleavage of ribose Phosphorolytic cleavage of ribose 44 Adenosine deaminase deficiency Enzyme deficiency ® acummulation of adenosine in cells (esp. lymphocytes) ® conversion to AMP,dAMP, ADP by cellular kinases. Inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase Synthesis of other deoxynucleotides drops Cells cannot make DNA and devide. One of the causes severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID). Treatment by gene therapy Findings of deoxyadenosine in urine 45 hypoxantine xantine Uric acid Xantine oxidase guanin guanase Final product of human purine degradation (400-600 mg /day) Inhibition by oxypurinol Degradation of purine bases 46 Ø overproduction of uric acid Ø Lesch-Nyhan syndrome Ø underexcretion of uric acid in kidneys Deposition of urate crystals in joints® infammatory response to the crystals ® gouty arthritis. Formation of uric acid stones is also possible. Gout Gout is a disorder connected with high levels of uric acid in blood - hyperuricemia. Causes: 47 Allopurinol – in the body is converted to oxypurinol - competitive inhibitor of xantinoxidase Treatment of gout: oxypurinol inhibits xantine oxidase More soluble xantine and hypoxantine are accumulated. Hypoxantine can be „salvaged“ in patients with normal level of hypoxantine phosphoribosyltransferase. 48 Replication of DNA 49 Replication of DNA Each of the two parental strands serves as a template for the synthesis of complementary strand Bases in the new strand are attached on the principle of complementarity to the bases in the template strand Location: nucleus 50 Non protein substrates necessary for replication Compound Function dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP High energy substrate Mg2+ cofactor primer RNA Initiation of replication Parental strand of DNA template 51 Enzymes and other proteins involved in replication (different for prokaryotes and eukaryotes) Enzyme Function Helicase Unwinding enzyme ( ATP is required) RNA polymerase (primase) RNA primer formation DNA-dependent DNA polymerases catalyzes joining of nucleotides to 3´-terminal of the growing chain DNA-ligase Catalyzes joining of DNA fragments 52 Enzym Function SSB-proteins prevention of reannealing Topoisomerase Relieve torsional strain on parental duplex caused by unwinding RNA-nuclease Hydrolyzes RNA from RNA-DNA hybrids Sliding clamp prevents this DNA polymerase from dissociating from the template DNA strand Telomerase enables replication at the 3´-ends of linear chromosomes (not present in all cells) Enzymes and other proteins involved in replication (different for prokaryotes and eukaryotes) cont. 53 The all DNA polymerases attach nucleotides on 3´-end of a growing chain (new DNA is formed in the direction 5´®3´) Chemical reaction of DNA synthesis Synthetic process is catalyzed by DNA-polymerases Already formed strand (DNA or RNA) reacts with deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) Diphosphate is released and dNMP is attached by ester bond (DNA)n + dNTP ® (DNA)n+1 + PPi 54 Formation of a bond between new deoxynucleotide and the chain of DNA during elongation dNTP-2 reacts with 3´-terminal of the growing chain 3´-terminal of the growing chain DNA-polymerase > 55 Chain elongation dNTP3 + PPi Ester bond is formed between the 3´-OH group of growing chain and 5´-phosphate of entering nucleotide 5´ 3´ Diphosphate is released (complexed with Mg2+ ions). 56 Some anticancer and antiviral drugs are nucleotides missing the 3‘ OH. Such "dideoxy" nucleotides shut down replication after being incorporated into the strand. Fast-replicating DNA in cancer cells or viruses is inactivated by these drugs. Significance of 3‘OH group 57 Replication proceeds on both strands • double helix must be unwinded – enzyme helicase • formation of replication fork • reannealing of strands is prevented by ssb-proteins (single strain binding proteins) • each newly synthesized strand of DNA base-pairs with its complementary parental template strand • 58 • replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes starts at the given point ® origin • it occurs in both directions from the origin, two replication forks are formed that move away from the origin bidirectionally (in both direction at the same time) • replication bubbles are formed - replicons 5´ 3´ 3´ 5´ Initiation of replication origin Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes Beginning with one parental double helix two newly synthesized stretches of nucleotide chains must grow in opposite direction – one in 5®3 direction toward the replication fork and the other 5®3 direction away from replication fork 59 Ori-binding proteins Origin (rich in A,T sequences) Denaturation in A,T site Replication starts in the origine and continues untill both forks meets Initiation in prokaryotes 60 • Chromosomes in eukaryotes are very long DNA molecules that cannot be replicated continuously. •Replication is initiated at multiple origins (up to several hundred in each chromosome, one every 30 to 300 kbp) in both directions. • Initiation is controlled by time and space, • • Replication rate is lower then in eukaryotes, Okazaki fragments are much smaller in eukaryotes (200 of bases) then prokaryotes (1000-2000 of bases) • •Occurs in S-phase Eukaryotic DNA replication 61 Eukaryotic DNA replication 3´ 5´ Direction of replication origin Replicon (replication eye or bubble) joining of replicons Replication forks 62 Nuclear DNA is replicated only in the S phase of the cell cycle, mitosis takes place after the replication of all DNA sequences has been completed. Two gaps in time separate the two processes. Eukaryotic DNA replication synthetic phase - replication of DNA (6 – 8 h) preparation for mitosis - G2 (2 – 6 h) G1 (~ 10 h) or G0 (variable quiescence phase) M mitosis and cell division (1 h) S 63 Unwinding protein (ATP-dependent) (helicase) ATP ADP Proteins stabilizing single strand structure (ssb-proteins single strain binding) Proteins that are involved in unwinding and prevention of reannealing 3´ 5´ 64 RNA primer is necessary for DNA synthesis •DNA polymerase cannot initiate de novo synthesis of the chain, it requires free 3´-OH group for linking a new nucleotide. • This primer is RNA oligonucleotide (10-20 bases) •RNA primer is synthesized in direction 5´®3´ by the action of RNA polymerase (primase) •Primer is coded according to template sequence • 3´ RNA-DNA hybride 5´ 3´ 65 DNA polymerase initially adds a deoxyribonucleotide to the 3´-hydroxyl group of the primer and then continues adding deoxyribonucleotides to the 3´-end 3´ 5´ Primer RNA New DNA 66 RNA primer is subsequently removed by the action of exonuclease and the gap is filled by by DNA polymerase Degraded RNA 3´ 5´ 67 Synthesis of DNA proceeds always in 5´® 3´ direction The synthesis of new DNA along the A parental strand occurs without problems 3´ Parental chain A (leading strand) Parental chain B (lagging strand) How will occur the synthesis among the B chain? 5´ 5´ 68 The lagging strand is synthetized discontinuously – Okazaki fragments are formed Okazaki fragments Okazaki fragments are synthesized 5´®3´ direction 3´ 5´ 5´ 3´ RNA primer new DNA http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNXFk_d6y80&feature=player_detailpage 69 Okazaki fragments 3´ 5´ 5´ 3´ As replication progress, the RNA primers are removed from Okazaki fragments. DNA polymerase fills the gaps produced by removal of the primers.DNA ligase will join the fragments of DNA Lagging strand – replication occurs discontinuously in direction away from the fork 70 Proofreading of newly syjthesized DNA structure •Precision of replication ~ 1mistakes /109 BP •Enzymes proofreads the newly synthesized DNA •As each nucleotide is added to the chain, DNA polymerase checks to make certain the added nucleotide is correctly matched to its complementary base. • If it is not, the 3´®5´ exonuclease activity edits the mistake. •The 5´®3´polymerase then replaces it with the correct nucleotide. DNA-polymerases have 5´®3´polymerase activity and 3´®5´exonuclease activity 71 Polymerase Polymerase activity (for all enzymes 5´ → 3´) Exonuclease activity DNA polymerase I Filling if gap after removal RNA primer, DNA repair, removal of RNA primers 5´→3´ and 3´→5´ DNA polymerase II DNA repair 3´→5´ DNA polymerase III* Replication, proofreading and editing 3´→5´ *The main enzyme of replication Prokaryotic DNA-polymerases 72 Polymerase* Polymerase activity (for all enzymes 5´ → 3´) Exonuclease activity DNA polymerase a replication, DNA repair no DNA polymerase b DNA repair no DNA polymerase g replication in mitochondria 3´→5´ DNA polymerase d** replication, DNA repair 3´→5´ DNA polymerase e replication 3´→5´ * At least 9 polymerases is known **major replicative enzyme Eukaryotic DNA-polymerases 73 Topoisomerase (Topology od DNA = tridimensional structure of DNA) Topoisomerase regulates the formation of superhelices These enzymes catalyze the concerted breakage and rejoining of DNA strands, producing a DNA that is more or less superhelical than the original The precise regulation of the cellular level of DNA superhelicity is important to facilitate protein interaction with DNA DNA topoisomerases have many functions (at replication, transcription, repairs, etc.) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EYGrElVyHnU positive negative supercoiling 74 Supercoiling at unwinding double helix DNA Positive supercoiling Negative supercoiling DNA topoisomerases have many functions (at replication, transcripti, repair, …) 75 Make a transient single-strand break in negatively supercoiled DNA double helix. Passage of the unbroken strand through the gap eliminates one supercoil from DNA. Energy is not required. Present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Topoisomerase I Topoisomerase II It binds to double helix DNA and cleave both strands. It can relax supercoiled DNA or introduce supercoil into DNA. Present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Requires ATP cleavage energy. . 76 Action of topoisomerase I Interuption of phosphodiester bond followed by rotation around the second strand and closing the break by ligation 77 Inhibitors of human topoisomerase prevent replication Antineoplastic drugs Examples of topoisomerase inhibitors camptothecine – plant product antracyclines (daunorubicine) -bacterial products podophyllotoxines-plant product 78 podofyllotoxine camptothecine Camptotheca acuminata Podophyllum peltatum ad. N N O O O H H 5 C 2 O H O O C H 3 O O C H 3 O C H 3 O O 79 Eukaryotic chromosomes are linear. A solution must be found to two problems: • First, the ends of the chromosomes must be protected from degradation. • Secondly, there must be some mechanism to ensure replication of a complete chromosome Telomeres 80 Telomeres As DNA replication approaches the end of chromosome, a problem develop with lagging strand. Either primase cannot lay down a primer at very end of the chromosome, or after DNA replication is complete, the RNA at the end is degraded. Consequently, the newly synthesized strand is shorter at the 5´end, and there is 3´-overhang in DNA strand being replicated. Lagging strand RNA primer 3´overhang 5´terminal Template strand B Telomers are special sequences at the ends of chromosomes Tandem repeats od species-specific oligonucleotides, G-rich (in human TTAGGG up to 1000x) They protect the ends of chromosomes against nuclease activities. telomeric DNA 81 Telomerase • completition of DNA synthesis • adds newly synthesized hexanucleotide to 3´-end template strand • it is reverse transcriptase – it carries its own RNA template (CA), this is added to 3´-end of DNA template and new DNA is synthesized that lengthens the 3´-end of DNA strand. •Then the telomerase moves down the DNA toward the new 3´end and repeats the process a number of times. http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/donald.slish/Telomerase.html RNA template is a component of telomerase Template strand B is lengthened on the base of reversal transcription from RNA template TTAGGG Direction of telomerase movement telomerase adds tandem repeats to the telomere's 3´-end 82 Telomerase action Replicating leading strand is not included in the scheme RNA template 5´- 3´- pol e RNA-primer Telomerase action Lagging strand 5´-ending strand is extended by normal lagging strand synthesis replicated strand complementary to the 3´-end of the chromosome 83 ? Does the length of telomers correlate with the age of the cell and its replication capacity? •The inability to replicate telomeres has been linked to cell aging and death •Many somatic cells do not express telomerase – when placed in culture, they survive a fixed number of population doublings, enter senescence and then die. •Analysis has shown significant telomere shortening in those cells. •In contrast, stem cells do express telomerase and appear to have an infinite lifetime in culture. •Therefore research is focused on understanding of the role of telomeres in aging, growth and cancer 84 It is estimated that the number of damaging interventions into the DNA structure in the human cell is about: ~104-106/day Þ In addult human (1012 cells) it results in 1016-1018 repair processes per day. DNA damage and repair 85 DNA damage and repair Type of damage Cause of damage Missing base Depurination (104purines/day) Altered base Ionizing radiation, alkylating agents Non-correct base Spontaneous deamination Deletion-insertion Intercalating drugs (acridines) Formation of dimers UV radiation Strand breaks Ionizing radiation, chemicals (bleomycine) Cross-linkages Chemicals (derivateves of psoralene, mitomycine C) Tautomer formation Spontaneous and temporary 86 All cells are able to recognize damaged DNA and possess highly efficient mechanisms to repair modified or damaged DNA. DNA repair enzymes: Specific glycosylases can eliminate altered bases by hydrolysis of the N-glycosidic bond between the base and deoxyribose; specific endonucleases cause breaks in the strand, 5´-3´ exonucleases excise one or more nucleotides from the strand DNA polymerase b fills in the gap, DNA ligase rejoins the DNA strand. The two major repair pathways are base excision repair and nucleotide excision repair.