GMFCS - E & R © Robert Palisano, Peter Rosenbaum, Doreen Bartlett, Michael Livingston, 2007
CanChild Centre for Childhood Disability Research, McMaster University
GMFCS © Robert Palisano, Peter Rosenbaum, Stephen Walter, Dianne Russell, Ellen Wood, Barbara Galuppi, 1997
CanChild Centre for Childhood Disability Research, McMaster University
(Reference: Dev Med Child Neurol 1997;39:214-223)
The Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) for cerebral palsy is based on self-initiated movement, with
emphasis on sitting, transfers, and mobility. When defining a five-level classification system, our primary criterion has
been that the distinctions between levels must be meaningful in daily life. Distinctions are based on functional
limitations, the need for hand-held mobility devices (such as walkers, crutches, or canes) or wheeled mobility, and to a
much lesser extent, quality of movement. The distinctions between Levels I and II are not as pronounced as the
distinctions between the other levels, particularly for infants less than 2 years of age.
The expanded GMFCS (2007) includes an age band for youth 12 to 18 years of age and emphasizes the concepts
inherent in the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). We
encourage users to be aware of the impact that environmental and personal factors may have on what children and
youth are observed or reported to do. The focus of the GMFCS is on determining which level best represents the
child’s or youth’s present abilities and limitations in gross motor function. Emphasis is on usual performance
in home, school, and community settings (i.e., what they do), rather than what they are known to be able to do at their
best (capability). It is therefore important to classify current performance in gross motor function and not to include
judgments about the quality of movement or prognosis for improvement.
The title for each level is the method of mobility that is most characteristic of performance after 6 years of age. The
descriptions of functional abilities and limitations for each age band are broad and are not intended to describe all
aspects of the function of individual children/youth. For example, an infant with hemiplegia who is unable to crawl on
his or her hands and knees, but otherwise fits the description of Level I (i.e., can pull to stand and walk), would be
classified in Level I. The scale is ordinal, with no intent that the distances between levels be considered equal or that
children and youth with cerebral palsy are equally distributed across the five levels. A summary of the distinctions
between each pair of levels is provided to assist in determining the level that most closely resembles a child’s/youth’s
current gross motor function.
We recognize that the manifestations of gross motor function are dependent on age, especially during infancy and
early childhood. For each level, separate descriptions are provided in several age bands. Children below age 2 should
be considered at their corrected age if they were premature. The descriptions for the 6 to 12 year and 12 to18 year
age bands reflect the potential impact of environment factors (e.g., distances in school and community) and personal
factors (e.g., energy demands and social preferences) on methods of mobility.
An effort has been made to emphasize abilities rather than limitations. Thus, as a general principle, the gross motor
function of children and youth who are able to perform the functions described in any particular level will probably be
classified at or above that level of function; in contrast, the gross motor function of children and youth who cannot
perform the functions of a particular level should be classified below that level of function.
INTRODUCTION & USER INSTRUCTIONS
CanChild Centre for Childhood Disability Research
Institute for Applied Health Sciences, McMaster University,
1400 Main Street West, Room 408, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 1C7
Tel: 905-525-9140 ext. 27850 Fax: 905-522-6095
E-mail: canchild@mcmaster.ca Website: www.canchild.ca
GMFCS – E & R
Gross Motor Function Classification System
Expanded and Revised
© Palisano, Rosenbaum, Bartlett & Livingston, 2007 Page 2 of 4
Body support walker – A mobility device that supports the pelvis and trunk. The child/youth is physically positioned
in the walker by another person.
Hand-held mobility device – Canes, crutches, and anterior and posterior walkers that do not support the trunk during
walking.
Physical assistance – Another person manually assists the child/youth to move.
Powered mobility – The child/youth actively controls the joystick or electrical switch that enables independent
mobility. The mobility base may be a wheelchair, scooter or other type of powered mobility device.
Self-propels manual wheelchair – The child/youth actively uses arms and hands or feet to propel the wheels and
move.
Transported – A person manually pushes a mobility device (e.g., wheelchair, stroller, or pram) to move the
child/youth from one place to another.
Walks – Unless otherwise specified indicates no physical assistance from another person or any use of a hand-held
mobility device. An orthosis (i.e., brace or splint) may be worn.
Wheeled mobility – Refers to any type of device with wheels that enables movement (e.g., stroller, manual
wheelchair, or powered wheelchair).
LEVEL I - Walks without Limitations
LEVEL II - Walks with Limitations
LEVEL III - Walks Using a Hand-Held Mobility Device
LEVEL IV - Self-Mobility with Limitations; May Use Powered Mobility
LEVEL V - Transported in a Manual Wheelchair
Distinctions Between Levels I and II - Compared with children and youth in Level I, children and youth in Level II
have limitations walking long distances and balancing; may need a hand-held mobility device when first learning to
walk; may use wheeled mobility when traveling long distances outdoors and in the community; require the use of a
railing to walk up and down stairs; and are not as capable of running and jumping.
Distinctions Between Levels II and III - Children and youth in Level II are capable of walking without a hand-held
mobility device after age 4 (although they may choose to use one at times). Children and youth in Level III need a
hand-held mobility device to walk indoors and use wheeled mobility outdoors and in the community.
Distinctions Between Levels III and IV - Children and youth in Level III sit on their own or require at most limited
external support to sit, are more independent in standing transfers, and walk with a hand-held mobility device.
Children and youth in Level IV function in sitting (usually supported) but self-mobility is limited. Children and youth in
Level IV are more likely to be transported in a manual wheelchair or use powered mobility.
Distinctions Between Levels IV and V - Children and youth in Level V have severe limitations in head and trunk
control and require extensive assisted technology and physical assistance. Self-mobility is achieved only if the
child/youth can learn how to operate a powered wheelchair.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
GENERAL HEADINGS FOR EACH LEVEL
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN LEVELS
© Palisano, Rosenbaum, Bartlett & Livingston, 2007 Page 3 of 4
Gross Motor Function Classification System – Expanded and Revised (GMFCS – E & R)
LEVEL I: Infants move in and out of sitting and floor sit with both hands free to manipulate objects. Infants crawl on hands and
knees, pull to stand and take steps holding on to furniture. Infants walk between 18 months and 2 years of age without the need for
any assistive mobility device.
LEVEL II: Infants maintain floor sitting but may need to use their hands for support to maintain balance. Infants creep on their
stomach or crawl on hands and knees. Infants may pull to stand and take steps holding on to furniture.
LEVEL III: Infants maintain floor sitting when the low back is supported. Infants roll and creep forward on their stomachs.
LEVEL IV: Infants have head control but trunk support is required for floor sitting. Infants can roll to supine and may roll to prone.
LEVEL V: Physical impairments limit voluntary control of movement. Infants are unable to maintain antigravity head and trunk
postures in prone and sitting. Infants require adult assistance to roll.
LEVEL I: Children floor sit with both hands free to manipulate objects. Movements in and out of floor sitting and standing are
performed without adult assistance. Children walk as the preferred method of mobility without the need for any assistive mobility
device.
LEVEL II: Children floor sit but may have difficulty with balance when both hands are free to manipulate objects. Movements in and
out of sitting are performed without adult assistance. Children pull to stand on a stable surface. Children crawl on hands and knees
with a reciprocal pattern, cruise holding onto furniture and walk using an assistive mobility device as preferred methods of mobility.
LEVEL III: Children maintain floor sitting often by "W-sitting" (sitting between flexed and internally rotated hips and knees) and may
require adult assistance to assume sitting. Children creep on their stomach or crawl on hands and knees (often without reciprocal leg
movements) as their primary methods of self-mobility. Children may pull to stand on a stable surface and cruise short distances.
Children may walk short distances indoors using a hand-held mobility device (walker) and adult assistance for steering and turning.
LEVEL IV: Children floor sit when placed, but are unable to maintain alignment and balance without use of their hands for support.
Children frequently require adaptive equipment for sitting and standing. Self-mobility for short distances (within a room) is achieved
through rolling, creeping on stomach, or crawling on hands and knees without reciprocal leg movement.
LEVEL V: Physical impairments restrict voluntary control of movement and the ability to maintain antigravity head and trunk
postures. All areas of motor function are limited. Functional limitations in sitting and standing are not fully compensated for through
the use of adaptive equipment and assistive technology. At Level V, children have no means of independent movement and are
transported. Some children achieve self-mobility using a powered wheelchair with extensive adaptations.
LEVEL I: Children get into and out of, and sit in, a chair without the need for hand support. Children move from the floor and from
chair sitting to standing without the need for objects for support. Children walk indoors and outdoors, and climb stairs. Emerging
ability to run and jump.
LEVEL II: Children sit in a chair with both hands free to manipulate objects. Children move from the floor to standing and from chair
sitting to standing but often require a stable surface to push or pull up on with their arms. Children walk without the need for a handheld
mobility device indoors and for short distances on level surfaces outdoors. Children climb stairs holding onto a railing but are
unable to run or jump.
LEVEL III: Children sit on a regular chair but may require pelvic or trunk support to maximize hand function. Children move in and
out of chair sitting using a stable surface to push on or pull up with their arms. Children walk with a hand-held mobility device on level
surfaces and climb stairs with assistance from an adult. Children frequently are transported when traveling for long distances or
outdoors on uneven terrain.
LEVEL IV: Children sit on a chair but need adaptive seating for trunk control and to maximize hand function. Children move in and
out of chair sitting with assistance from an adult or a stable surface to push or pull up on with their arms. Children may at best walk
short distances with a walker and adult supervision but have difficulty turning and maintaining balance on uneven surfaces. Children
are transported in the community. Children may achieve self-mobility using a powered wheelchair.
LEVEL V: Physical impairments restrict voluntary control of movement and the ability to maintain antigravity head and trunk postures.
All areas of motor function are limited. Functional limitations in sitting and standing are not fully compensated for through the use of
adaptive equipment and assistive technology. At Level V, children have no means of independent movement and are transported.
Some children achieve self-mobility using a powered wheelchair with extensive adaptations.
BETWEEN 2ND AND 4TH BIRTHDAY
BETWEEN 4TH AND 6TH BIRTHDAY
BEFORE 2ND BIRTHDAY
© Palisano, Rosenbaum, Bartlett & Livingston, 2007 Page 4 of 4
Level I: Children walk at home, school, outdoors, and in the community. Children are able to walk up and down curbs without
physical assistance and stairs without the use of a railing. Children perform gross motor skills such as running and jumping but
speed, balance, and coordination are limited. Children may participate in physical activities and sports depending on personal
choices and environmental factors.
Level II: Children walk in most settings. Children may experience difficulty walking long distances and balancing on uneven terrain,
inclines, in crowded areas, confined spaces or when carrying objects. Children walk up and down stairs holding onto a railing or with
physical assistance if there is no railing. Outdoors and in the community, children may walk with physical assistance, a hand-held
mobility device, or use wheeled mobility when traveling long distances. Children have at best only minimal ability to perform gross
motor skills such as running and jumping. Limitations in performance of gross motor skills may necessitate adaptations to enable
participation in physical activities and sports.
Level III: Children walk using a hand-held mobility device in most indoor settings. When seated, children may require a seat belt for
pelvic alignment and balance. Sit-to-stand and floor-to-stand transfers require physical assistance of a person or support surface.
When traveling long distances, children use some form of wheeled mobility. Children may walk up and down stairs holding onto a
railing with supervision or physical assistance. Limitations in walking may necessitate adaptations to enable participation in physical
activities and sports including self-propelling a manual wheelchair or powered mobility.
Level IV: Children use methods of mobility that require physical assistance or powered mobility in most settings. Children require
adaptive seating for trunk and pelvic control and physical assistance for most transfers. At home, children use floor mobility (roll,
creep, or crawl), walk short distances with physical assistance, or use powered mobility. When positioned, children may use a body
support walker at home or school. At school, outdoors, and in the community, children are transported in a manual wheelchair or use
powered mobility. Limitations in mobility necessitate adaptations to enable participation in physical activities and sports, including
physical assistance and/or powered mobility.
Level V: Children are transported in a manual wheelchair in all settings. Children are limited in their ability to maintain antigravity
head and trunk postures and control arm and leg movements. Assistive technology is used to improve head alignment, seating,
standing, and and/or mobility but limitations are not fully compensated by equipment. Transfers require complete physical assistance
of an adult. At home, children may move short distances on the floor or may be carried by an adult. Children may achieve selfmobility
using powered mobility with extensive adaptations for seating and control access. Limitations in mobility necessitate
adaptations to enable participation in physical activities and sports including physical assistance and using powered mobility.
Level I: Youth walk at home, school, outdoors, and in the community. Youth are able to walk up and down curbs without physical
assistance and stairs without the use of a railing. Youth perform gross motor skills such as running and jumping but speed, balance,
and coordination are limited. Youth may participate in physical activities and sports depending on personal choices and
environmental factors.
Level II: Youth walk in most settings. Environmental factors (such as uneven terrain, inclines, long distances, time demands,
weather, and peer acceptability) and personal preference influence mobility choices. At school or work, youth may walk using a handheld
mobility device for safety. Outdoors and in the community, youth may use wheeled mobility when traveling long distances. Youth
walk up and down stairs holding a railing or with physical assistance if there is no railing. Limitations in performance of gross motor
skills may necessitate adaptations to enable participation in physical activities and sports.
Level III: Youth are capable of walking using a hand-held mobility device. Compared to individuals in other levels, youth in Level III
demonstrate more variability in methods of mobility depending on physical ability and environmental and personal factors. When
seated, youth may require a seat belt for pelvic alignment and balance. Sit-to-stand and floor-to-stand transfers require physical
assistance from a person or support surface. At school, youth may self-propel a manual wheelchair or use powered mobility.
Outdoors and in the community, youth are transported in a wheelchair or use powered mobility. Youth may walk up and down stairs
holding onto a railing with supervision or physical assistance. Limitations in walking may necessitate adaptations to enable
participation in physical activities and sports including self-propelling a manual wheelchair or powered mobility.
Level IV: Youth use wheeled mobility in most settings. Youth require adaptive seating for pelvic and trunk control. Physical
assistance from 1 or 2 persons is required for transfers. Youth may support weight with their legs to assist with standing transfers.
Indoors, youth may walk short distances with physical assistance, use wheeled mobility, or, when positioned, use a body support
walker. Youth are physically capable of operating a powered wheelchair. When a powered wheelchair is not feasible or available,
youth are transported in a manual wheelchair. Limitations in mobility necessitate adaptations to enable participation in physical
activities and sports, including physical assistance and/or powered mobility.
Level V: Youth are transported in a manual wheelchair in all settings. Youth are limited in their ability to maintain antigravity head
and trunk postures and control arm and leg movements. Assistive technology is used to improve head alignment, seating, standing,
and mobility but limitations are not fully compensated by equipment. Physical assistance from 1 or 2 persons or a mechanical lift is
required for transfers. Youth may achieve self-mobility using powered mobility with extensive adaptations for seating and control
access. Limitations in mobility necessitate adaptations to enable participation in physical activities and sports including physical
assistance and using powered mobility.
BETWEEN 6TH AND 12TH BIRTHDAY
BETWEEN 12TH AND 18TH BIRTHDAY