Compendium of Physiology Physiology of nervous system 67. The importance and the regulatory role of nervous system • Unicellular versus multicellular organisms, compartmentalization • Nervous system essential for multicellular organisms • Homeostasis maintenance • Bodily functions coordinations • Regulation • Definition • Nervous vs. humoral • Regulation vs. anticipation 68. Cellular base of nervous system • Neuroglial cells • Classification and function overview • Neuronal cells • Characterization, classification, anatomy • Functions of neurons • Maintenance activity (cytoplasm) • Synhtesis (soma) • Transport (categorization, characterization) • Information processing and transmission (membrane) 69. Intracranial compartment, intracranial pressure • Content of intracranial compartment • Brain • Blood • CSF • Barriers among compartments • Meningeal • Hematoencephalic • Hematoliquor • CSF • Function • Production, circulation, absorption • Circumventricular organs • Definition, classification • Intracranial pressure • Definition, equation, implications 70. Membrane voltage, action potential – generation and propagation through nerve fibers • Membrane potentials in neurons • Resting potential (ionic mechanisms) • Action potential (ionic changes, localization) • Signal conduction • Role of myelin, saltatory conduction • Classification of nerve fibres 71. Structure of synapse and integration of information on the synaptic level, neurotransmission vs. neuromodulation • Synapse • Definition • Electrical vs. chemical • Definition and basic classifications of neurotransmitters • Excitatory/inhibitory postsynaptic potentials vs. action potential • Temporal and spatial signal summation • Signal convergendce vs. divergence • Neurotransmission vs. neuromodulation • Examples of neruomodulatory systems 72. Receptors, receptor potential vs. action potential, receptive field • Receptor definition (energy converter) • Receptor potential vs. Action potential • RP – analogue (amplitude), AP – digital (frequency) • RP – various ionic mechansims, AP - Na-K based • Basic attributes of stimulus • Modality, localization, intensity, duration • The law of specific nerve energies (labeled line coding) • Receptive field • Definition • Examples of large and small receptive fields, association with resolution • Lateral inhibition • Receptor adaptation (tonic and phasic response) • Various classifications of receptors • Brief overview of the skin receptors 73. Basic functional comparison of somatosensitivity, viscerosensitivity and proprioception, the importance of sensitivity for immediate and long-term survival • Somatosensitivty vs. viscerosensitivty vs. proprioception • Definition, fuctional comparison • Somatosensory pathways (three systems) • Function/resolution • Importance for survival (i.e. pain for immediate, proprioceptirn for better adaptation) • Brief overview of proprioception • Muscle spindles vs. Golgi tendon organs (Motor system I) 74. Pain • Definition of pain • Classification of pain (physiological, pathological, acute, chronic) • Somatosensory pathways involved in pain perception • Fast vs. slow pain • Pain modulation • Overview of structures involved in pain modulation • Gate control theory • Referred pain vs. phantom limb pain 75. The basic physiology of olfactory and gustatory system – brief characterization of the modality, basic information about signal detection and processing • Chemical senses – detection of chemicals dissolved in air/saliva • Olfaciton and gustation are interconnected • Evolutionary old – olfaction influenced neocortex evolution • Analysis of odors requires memory and “advanced” information processing • Basic overview of human olfactory and gustatory systems • Main characteristics of olfaction and taste in human • Human is microolfactoric… • Mention examples of some smell types • List taste types • Structure of olfactory epithelium • Mechanism of signal transduction • Brain structures associated with olfaction 76. The basic physiology of auditory and vestibular system – brief characterization of the modality, basic information about signal detection and processing • The auditory and vestibular systems are interconnected by similar mechanisms of reception (“hair cells” activated by mechanical stimuli) • Auditory system • Brief characteristic of sound • Overview of ear anatomy and physiology • Middle ear more in details • Inner ear in details (anatomy, hair cells categorization and function…) • Main structures involved in signal processing and source localization • Vestibular system • Overview of anatomy with respect to fucnction (detection of position, linear and angular acceleration) • Main projections from vestibular nuclei • Nystagmus (presentation Vision II) 77. The basic physiology of visual system – light detection vs. image formation, circadian rhythms • Brief characterization of light • Functional overview of eye anatomy (camera obscura with a lens) • Light detection (LD) vs. image formation (IF) • LD - almost all the living organisms - one of the oldest functions - long evolution = long period of improvement – IF development - mainly for circadian activity synchronization • Circadian rhythms • Definition + importance • Biological clock (cellular level, tissue level, central pacemaker) • Brief overview of circadian rhytms in humans (“active”hours, “rest” hours, physiological changes, associated hormone oscilations…) 78. The basic physiology of visual system – rods and cones function, on/off receptive field, nervus opticus vs. tractus opticus • Rods and cons function • Characterization and comparison • Phototransduction mechanism and adaptation • Brief overview of retina organization (retina process receptor potential – nalog, AP is generated in ganglion cells) • Reeptive field organization • On/off receptive fields • Magnocellular system (BW) • Parvocellular system (Color) • Nervus opticus vs. tractus opticus • Projections from tractus opticus (Main centers in the brain involved in visual signals processing) 79. Upper and lower motor neuron, neuromuscular junction, muscle contraction • Upper and lower motor neuron localization and function • Lower motor neuron • Only the structure responsible for muscle contraction • Part of local reflex circuit • Overview of structures and main pathways controlling lower motor neuron (protprioception, higher leves of CNS including upper motor neuron, medial system, lateral system tr. corticospinalis, sorticobulbaris…) • Types of lower motor neurons (alpha, gamma, beta) • Upper motor neuron • Primary motor cortex, homunculus • Motor unit definition • Neuromuscular junction descrition • Muscle contraction description 80. Hierarchic organization of motor system – reflex vs. voluntary motor activity • Hierarchy of movement • Reflex – economical, uniform, protective, fast • Rhytmic – economical solution for complex uniform actions (breathing, walking…) • Voluntary – non-economical, unique, relatively slow • Classification and description of reflexes • Fixed action pattern and rhythmic movement (definition and examples) • Voluntary motor control • Overview of structures involved in planning and execution of voluntary motor activity • Motor cortex organization (primary, premotor and supplementray motro cortex…) • Brief description of pyramidal tract 81. The basic functions of basal ganglia • Brief description of basal ganglia function (loops, motor, non-motor) • Overview of basal ganglia nuclei and the conncetions • Description of direct and indirect pathway 82. The basic division and functions of autonomic nervous system • Definition of autonomic nervous system • Somatic and autonomic nervous system comparison (function, synapse reflex circuit…) • Comparison of sympathetic and parasympathetic division • Basic charateristics of neurotransmitter and receptor systems (description of autonomic inervation of particular systems is covered in each organ system separately) • Examples of brain centers controlling the autonomic nervous system (both in hypothalamus, brain stem…) • Pupillary light reflex • Role of hypothalamus in essential regulations • Brief characterization of enteric nervous system and its specifics 83. The importance of limbic system and brief characterization of basic functions – somatic and limbic arousal systems, sleep and wakefulness • Concept, definition and structures of limbic system • Integration of information from inner and outer environemnt • Hypothalamus is a central structure… • Somatic vs. limbic arousal system • Habituation, association with reward punishing system, connections… • Sleep/wakefulness – cooperation of somatic and limbic activation system via neuromodulation • Phases of sleep, basic EEG characteristics 84. The importance of limbic system and brief characterization of basic functions – learning and memory, the influence of hypothalamus on neocortex, the role of amygdala • Concept, definition and structures of limbic system • Integration of information from inner and outer environemnt • Hypothalamus is a central structure… • Brief overview of hypothalamic functions • Influence of hypothalamus on neocortex • Learning and memory • Learning is based on plasticity, learning is forming of long-term memory • Explicit memory – hippocampus • Implicit memory - striatum • Amygdala • Influence of information from outside (neocortex) on limbic system • Amygdal hijack, affective tags 85. The basic characterization of neocortical functions – primary vs. association areas, topographical overview of cortical functions • Neocortex – majority of cerebral cortex - 95% (Paelo 1%, Archi 4%...) • Basic overview of neocortical cytoarchitecture (6 layers, specific inputs/outputs to from each layer, both vertical and horizontal connections, local differences - Brodman • Definition and comparison of primary and association areas • Somathotopic vs. non-somathotopic • Unimodal and polymodal association areas • Toppographical overview of cortical functions (localization and fuction) • Primary areas (motor, somatosensory….) • Association (…Parietooccipital – „analytic“, frontal – „executive“, limbic – not a neokortex, but from functional point of view it is a regullar and the most important association area – integration of information from inner and outer environment, neocortex is overrided by hypothalamus) • Lateralization of brain functions 86. The basic characterization of neocortical functions – language and social brain, basic overview of functional diagnostic methods used in neurology • Communication and language • Language areas – localization and fuctuion including lobulus parietalis inferior, aphasia… • Lateralization of language functions, gender differences • Social brain • Human is a social beeing, so the brain has to be designed accordingly • Frontal lobe – behavioral control…. • Functional diagnostic methods (EEG, SPECT, PET , fMRI)