Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Resuscitation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resuscitation
European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015
Section 2. Adult basic life support and automated external defibrillation
Gavin D. Perkinsa,b,∗
, Anthony J. Handleyc
, Rudolph W. Kosterd
, Maaret Castréne
,
Michael A. Smytha,f
, Theresa Olasveengeng
, Koenraad G. Monsieursh,i
, Violetta Raffayj
,
Jan-Thorsten Gräsnerk
, Volker Wenzell
, Giuseppe Ristagnom
, Jasmeet Soarn
, on behalf of
the Adult basic life support and automated external defibrillation section Collaborators1
a
Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
b
Critical Care Unit, Heart of England NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
c
Hadstock, Cambridge, UK
d
Department of Cardiology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
e
Department of Emergency Medicine and Services, Helsinki University Hospital and Helsinki University, Finland
f
West Midlands Ambulance Service NHS Foundation Trust, Dudley, UK
g
Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Prehospital Emergency Medicine and Department of Anesthesiology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
h
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
i
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
j
Municipal Institute for Emergency Medicine Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
k
Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany
l
Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
m
Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri”, Milan, Italy
n
Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, Southmead Hospital, Bristol, UK
Introduction
This chapter contains guidance on the techniques used during
the initial resuscitation of an adult cardiac arrest victim. This
includes basic life support (BLS: airway, breathing and circulation
support without the use of equipment other than a protective
device) and the use of an automated external defibrillator (AED).
Simple techniques used in the management of choking (foreign
body airway obstruction) are also included. Guidelines for the use
of manual defibrillators and starting in-hospital resuscitation are
found in the section Advanced Life Support Chapter.1 A summary
of the recovery position is included, with further information provided
in the First Aid Chapter.2
The guidelines are based on the ILCOR 2015 Consensus on Science
and Treatment Recommendations (CoSTR) for BLS/AED.3 The
ILCOR review focused on 23 key topics leading to 32 treatment recommendations
in the domains of early access and cardiac arrest
prevention, early, high-quality CPR, and early defibrillation. For
these ERC guidelines the ILCOR recommendations were supplemented
by focused literature reviews undertaken by Writing Group
members in areas not reviewed by ILCOR. The writing group were
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: g.d.perkins@warwick.ac.uk (G.D. Perkins).
1
The members of the Adult basic life support and automated external
defibrillation section Collaborators are listed in the Collaborators section.
cognisant of the costs and potential confusion created by changing
guidance from 2010, and therefore sought to limit changes to those
judged to be essential and supported by new evidence. Guidelines
were drafted by Writing Group members, then reviewed by the
full writing group and national resuscitation councils before final
approval by the ERC Board.
Summary of changes since the ERC 2010 guidelines
Guidelines 2015 highlights the critical importance of the interactions
between the emergency medical dispatcher, the bystander
who provides CPR and the timely deployment of an automated
external defibrillator. An effective, co-ordinated community
response that draws these elements together is key to improving
survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (Fig. 2.1).
The emergency medical dispatcher plays an important role in
the early diagnosis of cardiac arrest, the provision of dispatcherassisted
CPR (also known as telephone CPR), and the location and
dispatch of an automated external defibrillator. The sooner the
emergency services are called, the earlier appropriate treatment
can be initiated and supported.
The knowledge, skills and confidence of bystanders will vary
according to the circumstances, of the arrest, level of training and
prior experience.
The ERC recommends that the bystander who is trained and able
should assess the collapsed victim rapidly to determine if the victim
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82 G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
COMMUNITY
RESPONSE
SAVES
LIVES
112
Fig. 2.1. The interactions between the emergency medical dispatcher, the bystander
who provides CPR and the timely use of an automated external defibrillator are the
key ingredients for improving survival from out of hospital cardiac arrest.
is unresponsive and not breathing normally and then immediately
alert the emergency services.
Whenever possible, alert the emergency services without leaving
the victim.
The victim who is unresponsive and not breathing normally is
in cardiac arrest and requires CPR. Immediately following cardiac
arrest blood flow to the brain is reduced to virtually zero, which may
cause seizure-like episodes that may be confused with epilepsy.
Bystanders and emergency medical dispatchers should be suspicious
of cardiac arrest in any patient presenting with seizures and
carefully assess whether the victim is breathing normally.
The writing group endorses the ILCOR recommendation that
all CPR providers should perform chest compressions for all victims
in cardiac arrest. CPR providers trained and able to perform
rescue breaths should combine chest compressions and rescue
breaths. The addition of rescue breaths may provide additional benefit
for children, for those who sustain an asphyxial cardiac arrest,
or where the emergency medical service (EMS) response interval
is prolonged. Our confidence in the equivalence between chest
compression-only and standard CPR is not sufficient to change current
practice.
High quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation remains essential
to improving outcomes. The ERC 2015 guideline for chest compression
depth is the same as the 2010 guideline. CPR providers should
ensure chest compressions of adequate depth (at least 5 cm but not
more than 6 cm) with a rate of 100–120 compressions per minute.
Allow the chest to recoil completely after each compression and
minimise interruptions in compressions. When providing rescue
breaths/ventilations spend approximately 1 s inflating the chest
with sufficient volume to ensure the chest rises visibly. The ratio of
chest compressions to ventilations remains 30:2. Do not interrupt
chest compressions for more than 10 s to provide ventilations.
Defibrillation within 3–5 min of collapse can produce survival
rates as high as 50–70%. Early defibrillation can be achieved through
CPR providers using public access and on-site AEDs. Public access
AED programmes should be actively implemented in public places
that have a high density of citizens, such as airports, railway stations,
bus terminals, sport facilities, shopping malls, offices and
casinos. It is here that cardiac arrests are often witnessed, and
trained CPR providers can be on-scene quickly. Placing AEDs in
areas where one cardiac arrest per 5 years can be expected is
considered cost-effective, and the cost per added life-year is comparable
to other medical interventions. Past experience of the
number of cardiac arrests in a certain area, as well as the neighbourhood
characteristics, may help guide AED placement. Registration
of public access AEDs allows dispatchers to direct CPR providers to
a nearby AED and may help to optimise response.
The adult CPR sequence can be used safely in children who are
unresponsive and not breathing normally. For CPR providers with
additional training a modified sequence which includes providing 5
initial rescue breaths before starting chest compressions and delaying
going for help in the unlikely situation that the rescuer is alone
is even more suitable for the child and drowning victim. Chest compression
depths in children should be at least one third of the depth
of the chest (for infants that is 4 cm, for children 5 cm).
A foreign body causing severe airway obstruction is a medical
emergency. It almost always occurs whilst the victim is eating
or drinking and requires prompt treatment. Start by encouraging
the victim to cough. If the victim has severe airway obstruction or
begins to tire, give back blows and, if that fails to relieve the obstruction,
abdominal thrusts. If the victim becomes unresponsive, start
CPR immediately whilst help is summoned.
Cardiac arrest
Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) is one of the leading causes of
death in Europe. Depending how SCA is defined, about 55–113 per
100,000 inhabitants a year or 350,000–700,000 individuals a year
are affected in Europe.4–6 On initial heart-rhythm analysis, about
25–50% of SCA victims have ventricular fibrillation (VF), a percentage
that has declined over the last 20 years.7–13 It is likely that many
more victims have VF or rapid ventricular tachycardia (VT) at the
time of collapse, but by the time the first electrocardiogram (ECG)
is recorded by emergency medical service personnel their rhythm
has deteriorated to asystole.14,15 When the rhythm is recorded soon
after collapse, in particular by an on-site AED, the proportion of victims
in VF can be as high as 76%.16,17 More victims of SCA survive
if bystanders act immediately while VF is still present. Successful
resuscitation is less likely once the rhythm has deteriorated to
asystole.
The recommended treatment for VF cardiac arrest is immediate
bystander CPR and early electrical defibrillation. Most cardiac
arrests of non-cardiac origin have respiratory causes, such as
drowning (among them many children) and asphyxia. Rescue
breaths as well as chest compressions are critical for successful
resuscitation of these victims.
The chain of survival
The Chain of Survival summarises the vital links needed for successful
resuscitation (Fig. 2.2). Most of these links apply to victims
of both primary cardiac and asphyxial arrest.18
Early recognition and call for help
Chest pain should be recognised as a symptom of myocardial
ischaemia. Cardiac arrest occurs in a quarter to a third of patients
with myocardial ischaemia within the first hour after onset of chest
pain.19 Recognising the cardiac origin of chest pain, and calling the
emergency services before a victim collapses, enables the emergency
medical service to arrive sooner, hopefully before cardiac
arrest has occurred, thus leading to better survival.20–23
Once cardiac arrest has occurred, early recognition is critical
to enable rapid activation of the EMS and prompt initiation
of bystander CPR. The key observations are unresponsiveness
and not breathing normally. Emergency medical dispatchers can
improve recognition by focusing on these keywords.
G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99 83
Fig. 2.2. The chain of survival.
Early bystander CPR
The immediate initiation of CPR can double or quadruple survival
from cardiac arrest.20,24–28 If able, bystanders with CPR
training should give chest compressions together with ventilations.
When a bystander has not been trained in CPR, the emergency
medical dispatcher should instruct him or her to give chestcompression-only
CPR while awaiting the arrival of professional
help.29–31
Early defibrillation
Defibrillation within 3–5 min of collapse can produce survival
rates as high as 50–70%. This can be achieved by public access and
onsite AEDs.13,17,32,33 Each minute of delay to defibrillation reduces
the probability of survival to discharge by 10–12%. The links in the
chain work better together: when bystander CPR is provided, the
decline in survival is more gradual and averages 3–4% per minute
delay to defibrillation.20,24,34
Early advanced life support and standardised post-resuscitation
care
Advanced life support with airway management, drugs and
correcting causal factors may be needed if initial attempts at resuscitation
are un-successful. The quality of treatment during the
post-resuscitation phase affects outcome and are addressed in the
adult advanced life support and post resuscitation care chapters.1,35
The critical need for bystanders to act
In most communities, the median time from emergency
call to emergency medical service arrival (response interval) is
5–8 min,16,36–38 or 8–11 min to a first shock.13,27 During this time
the victim’s survival depends on bystanders who initiate CPR and
use an automated external defibrillator (AED).
Victims of cardiac arrest need immediate CPR. This provides
a small but critical blood flow to the heart and brain. It also
increases the likelihood that the heart will resume an effective
rhythm and pumping power. Chest compressions are especially
important if a shock cannot be delivered within the first few minutes
after collapse.39 After defibrillation, if the heart is still viable,
its pacemaker activity resumes and produces an organised rhythm
followed by mechanical contraction. In the first minutes after termination
of VF, the heart rhythm may be slow, and the force of
contractions weak; chest compressions must be continued until
adequate cardiac function returns.
Use of an AED by lay CPR providers increases survival from cardiac
arrest in public places.16 AED use in residential areas is also
increasing.40 An AED uses voice prompts to guide the CPR provider,
analyse the cardiac rhythm and instruct the CPR provider to deliver
a shock if VF or rapid ventricular tachycardia (VT) is detected. They
are accurate and will deliver a shock only when VF (or rapid VT) is
present.41,42
Recognition of cardiac arrest
Recognising cardiac arrest can be challenging. Both bystanders
and emergency call handlers (emergency medical dispatchers)
have to diagnose cardiac arrest promptly in order to activate the
chain of survival. Checking the carotid pulse (or any other pulse)
has proved to be an inaccurate method for confirming the presence
or absence of circulation.43–47
Agonal breaths are slow and deep breaths, frequently with a
characteristic snoring sound. They originate from the brain stem,
the part of the brain that remains functioning for some minutes
even when deprived of oxygen. The presence of agonal breathing
can be erroneously interpreted as evidence that there is a circulation
and CPR is not needed. Agonal breathing may be present
in up to 40% of victims in the first minutes after cardiac arrest,
and if responded to as a sign of cardiac arrest, is associated with
higher survival rates.48 The significance of agonal breathing should
be emphasised during basic life support training.49,50 Bystanders
should suspect cardiac arrest and start CPR if the victim is unresponsive
and not breathing normally.
Immediately following cardiac arrest, blood flow to the brain is
reduced to virtually zero, which may cause seizure-like episodes
that can be confused with epilepsy. Bystanders should be suspicious
of cardiac arrest in any patient presenting with seizures.51,52
Although bystanders who have witnessed cardiac arrest events
report changes in the victims’ skin colour, notably pallor and bluish
changes associated with cyanosis, these changes are not diagnostic
of cardiac arrest.51
Role of the emergency medical dispatcher
The emergency medical dispatcher plays a critical role in the
diagnosis of cardiac arrest, the provision of dispatcher assisted CPR
(also known as telephone CPR), the location and dispatch of an automated
external defibrillator and dispatch of a high priority EMS
response. The sooner the emergency services are called, the earlier
appropriate treatment can be initiated and supported.
Dispatcher recognition of cardiac arrest
Confirmation of cardiac arrest, at the earliest opportunity
is critical. If the dispatcher recognises cardiac arrest, survival
is more likely because appropriate measures can be taken.53,54
84 G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
Enhancing dispatcher ability to identify cardiac arrest, and optimising
emergency medical dispatcher processes, may be cost-effective
solutions to improve outcomes from cardiac arrest.
Use of scripted dispatch protocols within emergency medical
communication centres, including specific questions to improve
cardiac arrest recognition may be helpful. Patients who are
unresponsive and not breathing normally should be presumed to
be in cardiac arrest. Adherence to such protocols may help improve
cardiac arrest recognition,9,55–57 whereas failure to adhere to protocols
reduces rates of cardiac arrest recognition by dispatchers as
well as the provision of telephone-CPR.58–60
Obtaining an accurate description of the victim’s breathing
pattern is challenging for dispatchers. Agonal breathing is often
present, and callers may mistakenly believe the victim is still
breathing normally.9,60–68 Offering dispatchers additional education,
specifically addressing the identification and significance of
agonal breathing, can improve cardiac arrest recognition, increase
the provision of telephone-CPR,67,68 and reduce the number of
missed cardiac arrest cases.64
Asking questions regarding the regularity or pattern of breathing
may help improve recognition of abnormal breathing and thus
identification of cardiac arrest. If the initial emergency call is for a
person suffering seizures, the call taker should be highly suspicious
of cardiac arrest, even if the caller reports that the victim has a prior
history of epilepsy.61,69
Dispatcher assisted CPR
Bystander CPR rates are low in many communities. Dispatcherassisted
CPR (telephone-CPR) instructions have been demonstrated
to improve bystander CPR rates,9,56,70–72 reduce the time to
first CPR,56,57,68,72,73 increase the number of chest compressions
delivered70 and improve patient outcomes following out-ofhospital
cardiac arrest (OHCA) in all patient groups.9,29–31,57,71,74
Dispatchers should provide telephone-CPR instructions in all
cases of suspected cardiac arrest unless a trained provider is already
delivering CPR. Where instructions are required for an adult victim,
dispatchers should provide chest-compression-only CPR instruc-
tions.
If the victim is a child, dispatchers should instruct callers to
provide both ventilations and chest compressions. Dispatchers
should therefore be trained to provide instructions for both tech-
niques.
Adult BLS sequence
The sequence of steps for the initial assessment and treatment of
the unresponsive victim are summarised in Fig. 2.3. The sequence
of steps takes the reader through recognition of cardiac arrest, calling
EMS, starting CPR and using an AED. The number of steps has
been reduced to focus on the key actions. The intent of the revised
algorithm is to present the steps in a logical and concise manner
that is easy for all types of rescuers to learn, remember and perform.
Fig. 2.4 presents the detailed step-by-step sequence for the
trained provider. It continues to highlight the importance of ensuring
rescuer, victim and bystander safety. Calling for additional help
(if required) is incorporated in the alerting emergency services step
below. For clarity the algorithm is presented as a linear sequence
of steps. It is recognised that the early steps of checking response,
opening the airway, checking for breathing and calling the emergency
medical dispatcher may be accomplished simultaneously or
in rapid succession.
Those who are not trained to recognise cardiac arrest and
start CPR would not be aware of these guidelines and therefore
require dispatcher assistance whenever they make the decision
Unresponsive and
not breathing normally
Call Emergency Services
Give 30 chest compressions
Give 2 rescue breaths
Continue CPR 30:2
As soon as AED arrives - switch
it on and follow instructions
Fig. 2.3. The BLS/AED Algorithm.
to call 112. These guidelines do not therefore include specific
recommendations for those who are not trained to recognise cardiac
arrest and start CPR.
The remainder of this section provides supplemental information
on some of the key steps within the overall sequence.
Opening the airway and checking for breathing
The trained provider should assess the collapsed victim rapidly
to determine if they are responsive and breathing normally.
Open the airway using the head tilt and chin lift technique whilst
assessing whether the person is breathing normally. Do not delay
assessment by checking for obstructions in the airway. The jaw
thrust and finger sweep are no longer recommended for the lay
provider. Check for breathing using the techniques described in
Fig. 2.4 noting the critical importance of recognising agonal breathing
described above.
Alerting emergency services
112 is the European emergency phone number, available everywhere
in the EU, free of charge. It is possible to call 112 from
fixed and mobile phones to contact any emergency service: an
ambulance, the fire brigade or the police. Some European countries
provide an alternative direct access number to emergency medical
services, which may save time. Bystanders should therefore follow
national guidelines on the optimal phone number to use.
Early contact with the emergency services will facilitate dispatcher
assistance in the recognition of cardiac arrest, telephone
instruction on how to perform CPR, emergency medical service/first
responder dispatch, and on locating and dispatching of an AED.75–78
If possible, stay with the victim while calling the emergency
services. If the phone has a speaker facility switch it to speaker as
this will facilitate continuous dialogue with the dispatcher including
(if required) CPR instructions.79 It seems reasonable that CPR
G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99 85
Fig. 2.4. Step by step sequence of actions for use by the BLS/AED trained provider to treat the adult cardiac arrest victim.
86 G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
Fig. 2.4. (Continued ).
G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99 87
Fig. 2.4. (Continued ).
88 G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
Fig. 2.4. (Continued ).
training should include how to activate the speaker phone.80 Additional
bystanders may be used to help call the emergency services.
Starting chest compressions
In adults needing CPR, there is a high probability of a primary
cardiac cause. When blood flow stops after cardiac arrest, the blood
in the lungs and arterial system remains oxygenated for some
minutes. To emphasise the priority of chest compressions, it is recommended
that CPR should start with chest compressions rather
than initial ventilations. Manikin studies indicate that this is associated
with a shorter time to commencement of CPR.81–84
When providing manual chest compressions:
1. Deliver compressions ‘in the centre of the chest’.
2. Compress to a depth of at least 5 cm but not more than 6 cm.
3. Compress the chest at a rate of 100–120 min−1 with as few interruptions
as possible.
4. Allow the chest to recoil completely after each compression; do
not lean on the chest.
Hand position
Experimental studies show better haemodynamic responses
when chest compressions are performed on the lower half of the
sternum.85–87 It is recommended that this location be taught in a
simplified way, such as, “place the heel of your hand in the centre
of the chest with the other hand on top”. This instruction should be
accompanied by a demonstration of placing the hands on the lower
half of the sternum.88,89
Chest compressions are most easily delivered by a single CPR
provider kneeling by the side of the victim, as this facilitates
movement between compressions and ventilations with minimal
interruptions. Over-the-head CPR for single CPR providers and
straddle-CPR for two CPR providers may be considered when it is
not possible to perform compressions from the side, for example
when the victim is in a confined space.90,91
Compression depth
Fear of doing harm, fatigue and limited muscle strength frequently
result in CPR providers compressing the chest less deeply
than recommended. Four observational studies, published after
the 2010 Guidelines, suggest that a compression depth range of
4.5–5.5 cm in adults leads to better outcomes than all other compression
depths during manual CPR.92–95 Based on an analysis of
9136 patients, compression depths between 40 and 55 mm with
a peak at 46 mm, were associated with highest survival rates.94
There is also evidence from one observational study suggesting
that a compression depth of more than 6 cm is associated with an
increased rate of injury in adults when compared with compression
depths of 5–6 cm during manual CPR.96 The ERC endorses the ILCOR
recommendation that it is reasonable to aim for a chest compression
of approximately 5 cm but not more than 6 cm in the average
sized adult. In making this recommendation the ERC recognises
that it can be difficult to estimate chest compression depth and that
compressions that are too shallow are more harmful than compressions
that are too deep. The ERC therefore decided to retain the 2010
guidance that chest compressions should be at least 5 cm but not
more than 6 cm. Training should continue to prioritise achieving
adequate compression depth.
Compression rate
Chest compression rate is defined as the actual rate of compressions
being given at any one time. It differs from the number of chest
compressions in a specific time period, which takes into account
any interruptions in chest compressions.
G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99 89
Two studies, with a total of 13,469 patients, found higher
survival among patients who received chest compressions at a
rate of 100–120 min−1, compared to >140, 120–139, <80 and
80–99 min−1. Very high chest compression rates were associated
with declining chest compression depths.97,98 The ERC recommends,
therefore, that chest compressions should be performed
at a rate of 100–120 min−1.
Minimising pauses in chest compressions
Delivery of rescue breaths, shocks, ventilations and rhythm
analysis lead to pauses in chest compressions. Pre- and post-shock
pauses of less than 10 s, and chest compression fractions >60% are
associated with improved outcomes.99–103 Pauses in chest compressions
should be minimised, by ensuring CPR providers work
effectively together.
Firm surface
CPR should be performed on a firm surface whenever possible.
Air-filled mattresses should be routinely deflated during CPR.104
The evidence for the use of backboards is equivocal.105–109 If a backboard
is used, take care to avoid interrupting CPR and dislodging
intravenous lines or other tubes during board placement.
Chest wall recoil
Leaning on the chest preventing full chest wall recoil is common
during CPR.110,111 Allowing complete recoil of the chest after each
compression results in better venous return to the chest and may
improve the effectiveness of CPR.110,112–114 CPR providers should,
therefore, take care to avoid leaning after each chest compression.
Duty cycle
Optimal duty cycle (ratio of the time the chest is compressed
to the total time from one compression to the next) has been
studied in animal models and simulation studies with inconsistent
results.115–123 A recent human observational study has challenged
the previously recommended duty cycle of 50:50 by suggesting
compression phases >40% might not be feasible, and may be associated
with decreased compression depth.124 For CPR providers, the
duty cycle is difficult to adjust, and is largely influenced by other
chest compression parameters.119,124 In reviewing the evidence,
the ERC acknowledges there is very little evidence to recommend
any specific duty cycle and, therefore, insufficient new evidence to
prompt a change from the currently recommended ratio of 50%.
Feedback on compression technique
The use of CPR feedback and prompt devices during CPR in clinical
practice is intended to improve CPR quality as a means of
increasing the chances of ROSC and survival.125,126 The forms of
feedback include voice prompts, metronomes, visual dials, numerical
displays, waveforms, verbal prompts, and visual alarms.
The effect of CPR feedback or prompt devices has been studied
in two randomised trials92,127 and 11 observational studies.128–138
None of these studies demonstrated improved survival to discharge
with feedback, and only one found a significantly higher ROSC rate
in patients where feedback was used. However, in this study feedback
was activated at the discretion of the physician and no details
of the decision-making process to activate or not activate feedback
were provided.136 The use of CPR feedback or prompt devices during
CPR should only be considered as part of a broader system of
care that should include comprehensive CPR quality improvement
initiatives,138,139 rather than as an isolated intervention.
Rescue breaths
In non-paralysed, gasping pigs with unprotected, unobstructed
airways, continuous-chest-compression CPR without artificial ventilation
resulted in improved outcome.140 Gasping may be present
early after the onset of cardiac arrest in about one third of humans,
thus facilitating gas exchange.48 During CPR in intubated humans,
however, the median tidal volume per chest compression was only
about 40 mL, insufficient for adequate ventilation.141 In witnessed
cardiac arrest with ventricular fibrillation, immediate continuous
chest compressions tripled survival.142 Accordingly, continuous
chest compressions may be most beneficial in the early, ‘electric’
and ‘circulatory’ phases of CPR, while additional ventilation
becomes more important in the later, ‘metabolic’ phase.39
During CPR, systemic blood flow, and thus blood flow to the
lungs, is substantially reduced, so lower tidal volumes and respiratory
rates than normal can maintain effective oxygenation and
ventilation.143–146 When the airway is unprotected, a tidal volume
of 1 L produces significantly more gastric inflation than a
tidal volume of 500 mL.147 Inflation durations of 1 s are feasible
without causing excessive gastric insufflation.148 Inadvertent
hyperventilation during CPR may occur frequently, especially when
using manual bag-valve-mask ventilation in a protected airway.
While this increased intrathoracic pressure149 and peak airway
pressure,150 a carefully controlled animal experiment revealed no
adverse effects.151
From the available evidence we suggest that during adult CPR
tidal volumes of approximately 500–600 mL (6–7 mL kg−1) are
delivered. Practically, this is the volume required to cause the chest
to rise visibly.152 CPR providers should aim for an inflation duration
of about 1 s, with enough volume to make the victim’s chest
rise, but avoid rapid or forceful breaths. The maximum interruption
in chest compression to give two breaths should not exceed
10 s.153 These recommendations apply to all forms of ventilation
during CPR when the airway is unprotected, including mouth-tomouth
and bag-mask ventilation, with and without supplementary
oxygen.
Mouth-to-nose ventilation
Mouth-to-nose ventilation is an acceptable alternative to
mouth-to-mouth ventilation.154 It may be considered if the victim’s
mouth is seriously injured or cannot be opened, the CPR provider is
assisting a victim in the water, or a mouth-to-mouth seal is difficult
to achieve.
Mouth-to-tracheostomy ventilation
Mouth-to-tracheostomy ventilation may be used for a victim
with a tracheostomy tube or tracheal stoma who requires rescue
breathing.155
Compression–ventilation ratio
Animal data support a ratio of compression to ventilation of
greater than 15:2.156–158 A mathematical model suggests that a
ratio of 30:2 provides the best compromise between blood flow
and oxygen delivery.159,160 A ratio of 30:2 was recommended in
Guidelines 2005 and 2010 for the single CPR provider attempting
resuscitation of an adult. This decreased the number of interruptions
in compression and the no-flow fraction,161,162 and reduced
the likelihood of hyperventilation.149,163 Several observational
studies have reported slightly improved outcomes after implementation
of the guideline changes, which included switching from a
compression ventilation ratio of 15:2–30:2.161,162,164,165 The ERC
continues, therefore, to recommend a compression to ventilation
ratio of 30:2.
90 G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
Compression-only CPR
Animal studies have shown that chest-compression-only CPR
may be as effective as combined ventilation and compression in
the first few minutes after non-asphyxial arrest.140,166 Animal and
mathematical model studies of chest-compression-only CPR have
also shown that arterial oxygen stores deplete in 2–4 min.158,167 If
the airway is open, occasional gasps and passive chest recoil may
provide some air exchange.48,141,168–170
Observational studies, classified mostly as very low-quality evidence,
have suggested equivalence of chest-compression-only CPR
and chest compressions combined with rescue breaths in adults
with a suspected cardiac cause for their cardiac arrest.26,171–182
The ERC has carefully considered the balance between potential
benefit and harm from compression-only CPR compared to
standard CPR that includes ventilation. Our confidence in the equivalence
between chest-compression-only and standard CPR is not
sufficient to change current practice. The ERC, therefore, endorses
the ILCOR recommendations that all CPR providers should perform
chest compressions for all patients in cardiac arrest. CPR
providers trained and able to perform rescue breaths should perform
chest compressions and rescue breaths as this may provide
additional benefit for children and those who sustain an asphyxial
cardiac arrest175,183,184 or where the EMS response interval is
prolonged.179
Use of an automated external defibrillator
AEDs are safe and effective when used by laypeople with
minimal or no training.185 AEDs make it possible to defibrillate
many minutes before professional help arrives. CPR providers
should continue CPR with minimal interruption of chest compressions
while attaching an AED and during its use. CPR providers
should concentrate on following the voice prompts immediately
when they are spoken, in particular resuming CPR as soon as
instructed, and minimizing interruptions in chest compression.
Indeed, pre-shock and post-shock pauses in chest compressions
should be as short as possible.99,100,103,186 Standard AEDs are suitable
for use in children older than 8 years.187–189
For children between 1 and 8 years paediatric pads should be
used, together with an attenuator or a paediatric mode if available;
if these are not available, the AED should be used as it is. There are
a few case reports of successful use of AEDS in children ages less
than 1 year.190,191 The incidence of shockable rhythms in infants
is very low except when there is cardiac disease.187–189,192–195 In
these rare cases, if an AED is the only defibrillator available, its use
should be considered (preferably with a dose attenuator).
CPR before defibrillation
The importance of immediate defibrillation has always been
emphasised in guidelines and during teaching, and is considered
to have a major impact on survival from ventricular fibrillation.
This concept was challenged in 2005 because evidence suggested
that a period of up to 180 s of chest compression before defibrillation
might improve survival when the EMS response time exceeded
4–5 min.196,197 Three more recent trials have not confirmed this
survival benefit.198–200 An analysis of one randomised trial suggested
a decline in survival to hospital discharge by a prolonged
period of CPR (180 s) and delayed defibrillation in patients with
a shockable initial rhythm.200 Yet, for EMS agencies with higher
baseline survival-to-hospital discharge rates (defined as >20% for
an initial shockable rhythm), 180 s of CPR prior to defibrillation was
more beneficial compared to a shorter period of CPR (30–60 s).201
The ERC recommends that CPR should be continued while a
defibrillator or AED is being brought on-site and applied, but defibrillation
should not be delayed any longer.
Interval between rhythm checks
The 2015 ILCOR Consensus on Science reported that there are
currently no studies that directly address the question of optimal
intervals between rhythm checks, and their effect on survival:
ROSC; favourable neurological or functional outcome; survival to
discharge; coronary perfusion pressure or cardiac output.
In accordance with the ILCOR recommendation, and for consistency
with previous guidelines, the ERC recommends that chest
compressions should be paused every two minutes to assess the
cardiac rhythm.
Voice prompts
It is critically important that CPR providers pay attention to AED
voice prompts and follow them without any delay. Voice prompts
are usually programmable, and it is recommended that they be set
in accordance with the sequence of shocks and timings for CPR
given above. These should include at least:
1. minimise pauses in chest compressions for rhythm analysis and
charging;
2. a single shock only, when a shockable rhythm is detected;
3. a voice prompt for immediate resumption of chest compression
after the shock delivery;
4. a period of 2 min of CPR before the next voice prompt to reanalyse
the rhythm.
Devices measuring CPR quality may in addition provide realtime
CPR feedback and supplemental voice/visual prompts.
The duration of CPR between shocks, as well as the shock
sequence and energy levels are discussed further in the Advanced
Life Support Chapter.1
In practice, AEDs are used mostly by trained rescuers, where
the default setting of AED prompts should be for a compression to
ventilation ratio of 30:2.
If (in an exception) AEDs are placed in a setting where such
trained rescuers are unlikely to be available or present, the owner
or distributor may choose to change the settings to compression
only.
Fully-automatic AEDs
Having detected a shockable rhythm, a fully automatic AED will
deliver a shock without further action from the CPR provider. One
manikin study showed that untrained nursing students committed
fewer safety errors using a fully automatic AED compared with a
semi-automatic AED.202 A simulated cardiac arrest scenario on a
manikin showed that safety was not compromised when untrained
lay CPR providers used a fully automatic AED rather than a semiautomatic
AED.203 There are no human data to determine whether
these findings can be applied to clinical use.
Public access defibrillation (PAD) programmes
The conditions for successful resuscitation in residential areas
are less favourable than in public areas: fewer witnessed arrests,
lower bystander CPR rates and, as a consequence, fewer shockable
rhythms than in public places. This limits the effectiveness
of AED use for victims at home.204 Most studies demonstrating
a survival benefit from AED use were conducted with AEDs in
G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99 91
public places.32,205–208 More recent data from nationwide studies
in Japan and the USA confirmed that when an AED was available,
victims were defibrillated much sooner and with a better
chance of survival.16,209 However, an AED delivered a shock in
only 3.7%209 or 1.2%16 of all cardiac arrests. There was a clear
inverse relationship in the Japanese study between the number
of AEDs available per square km and the interval between collapse
and the first shock, leading to a positive relationship with
survival.
Public access AED programmes should, therefore, be actively
implemented in public places with a high density and movement
of citizens such as airports, railway stations, bus terminals, sport
facilities, shopping malls, offices and casinos where cardiac arrests
are usually witnessed and trained CPR providers can quickly be
on scene. The density and location of AEDs required for a sufficiently
rapid response is not well established, especially when
cost-effectiveness is a consideration. Factors such as expected incidence
of cardiac arrest, expected number of life-years gained,
and reduction in response time of AED-equipped CPR providers
compared to that of traditional EMS should inform this decision.
Placement of AEDs in areas where one cardiac arrest per 5 years
can be expected is considered cost-effective and comparable to
other medical interventions.210–212 For residential areas, past experience
may help guide AED placement, as may neighbourhood
characteristics.213,214 Registration of AEDs for public access, so that
dispatchers can direct CPR providers to a nearby AED, may also
help to optimise response.215 Cost saving is also possible, as early
defibrillation and on-site AED defibrillation may result in lower
in-hospital cost.216,217
The full potential of AEDs has not yet been achieved, because
they are mostly used in public settings, yet 60–80% of cardiac
arrests occur at home. The proportion of patients found in VF is
lower at home than in public places, however the absolute number
of potentially treatable patients is higher at home.204 Public
access defibrillation (PAD) rarely reaches victims at home.208 Different
strategies, therefore, are required for early defibrillation in
residential areas. Dispatched first responders, such as police and
fire fighters will, in general, have longer response times, but they
have the potential to reach the whole population.17,36 The logistic
problem for first responder programmes is that the CPR provider
needs to arrive, not just earlier than the traditional ambulance,
but within 5–6 min of the initial call, to enable attempted defibrillation
in the electrical or circulatory phase of cardiac arrest.39
With longer delays, the survival benefit decreases: a few minutes
gain in time will have less impact when a first responder
arrives more than 10 min after the call.34,218 Dispatched lay CPR
providers, local to the victim and directed to a nearby AED,
may improve bystander CPR rates33 and help reduce the time to
defibrillation.40
When implementing an AED programme, community and programme
leaders should consider factors such as development
of a team with responsibility for monitoring, maintaining the
devices, training and retraining individuals who are likely to use
the AED, and identification of a group of volunteer individuals who
are committed to using the AED for victims of cardiac arrest.219
Funds must be allocated on a permanent basis to maintain the
programme.
Programmes that make AEDs available in residential areas have
only been evaluated for response time, not for survival benefit.40
The acquisition of an AED for individual use at home, even for
those considered at high risk of sudden cardiac arrest is not
effective.220
The special circumstances chapter provides the evidence underpinning
the ERC recommendation that AEDs should be mandatory
on board all commercial aircraft in Europe, including regional and
low-cost carriers.221
Universal AED signage
When a victim collapses an AED must be obtained rapidly:
simple and clear signage indicating the location of an AED and
the fastest way to it is important. ILCOR has designed such
an AED sign that may be recognised worldwide and this is
recommended.222
In-hospital use of AEDs
There are no published randomised trials comparing in-hospital
use of AEDs with manual defibrillators. Two older, observational
studies of adults with in-hospital cardiac arrest from shockable
rhythms showed higher survival-to-hospital discharge rates when
defibrillation was provided through an AED programme than with
manual defibrillation alone.223,224 A more recent observational
study showed that an AED could be used successfully before the
arrival of the hospital resuscitation team.225 Three observational
studies showed no improvements in survival to hospital discharge
for in-hospital adult cardiac arrest when using an AED compared
with manual defibrillation.226–228 In one of these studies,226
patients in the AED group with non-shockable rhythms had a lower
survival-to-hospital discharge rate compared with those in the
manual defibrillator group (15% vs. 23%; P = 0.04). Another large
observational study of 11,695 patients from 204 hospitals also
showed that in-hospital AED use was associated with a lower
survival-to-discharge rate compared with no AED use (16.3% vs.
19.3%; adjusted rate ratio [RR], 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI],
0.78–0.92; P < 0.001).229 For non-shockable rhythms, AED use was
associated with lower survival (10.4% vs. 15.4%; adjusted RR, 0.74;
95% CI, 0.65–0.83; P < 0.001), and a similar survival rate for shockable
rhythms, (38.4% vs. 39.8%; adjusted RR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.88–1.13;
P = 0.99). This suggests that AEDs may cause harmful delays in
starting CPR, or interruptions in chest compressions in patients
with non-shockable rhythms.230 Only a small proportion (less
than 20%) of in-hospital cardiac arrests have an initial shockable
rhythm.229,231,232
We recommend the use of AEDs in those areas of the hospital
where there is a risk of delayed defibrillation,233 because it will
take several minutes for a resuscitation team to arrive, and first
responders do not have skills in manual defibrillation. The goal is
to attempt defibrillation within 3 min of collapse. In hospital areas
where there is rapid access to manual defibrillation, either from
trained staff or a resuscitation team, manual defibrillation should
be used in preference to an AED. Whichever defibrillation technique
is chosen (and some hospitals may choose to have defibrillators
that offer both an AED and manual mode) an effective system for
training and retraining should be in place.232,234 Sufficient healthcare
providers should be trained to enable the goal of providing
the first shock within 3 min of collapse anywhere in the hospital.
Hospitals should monitor collapse-to-first shock intervals and audit
resuscitation outcomes.
Risks to the CPR provider and recipients of CPR
Risks to the victim who receives CPR who is not in cardiac arrest
Many CPR providers do not initiate CPR because they are concerned
that delivering chest compressions to a victim who is not in
cardiac arrest will cause serious complications. Three studies have
investigated the risk of CPR in persons not in cardiac arrest.235–237
Pooled data from these three studies, encompassing 345 patients,
found an incidence of bone fracture (ribs and clavicle) of 1.7% (95%
CI 0.4–3.1%), pain in the area of chest compression 8.7% (95% CI
5.7–11.7%), and no clinically relevant visceral injury. Bystander CPR
extremely rarely leads to serious harm in victims who are eventually
found not to be in cardiac arrest. CPR providers should not,
92 G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
therefore, be reluctant to initiate CPR because of concern of causing
harm.
Risks to the victim who receives CPR who is in cardiac arrest
A systematic review of skeletal injuries after manual chest compression
reports an incidence of rib fractures ranging from 13% to
97%, and of sternal fractures from 1% to 43%.238 Visceral injuries
(lung, heart, abdominal organs) occur less frequently and may or
may not be associated with skeletal injury.239 Injuries are more
common when the depth of chest compression exceeds 6 cm in the
average adult.96
Risks to the CPR provider during training and during real-life CPR
Observational studies of training or actual CPR performance and
case reports have described rare occurrences of muscle strain, back
symptoms, shortness of breath, hyperventilation, pneumothorax,
chest pain, myocardial infarction and nerve injury.240,241 The incidence
of these events is very low, and CPR training and actual
performance is safe in most circumstances.242 Individuals undertaking
CPR training should be advised of the nature and extent of the
physical activity required during the training programme. Learners
and CPR providers who develop significant symptoms (e.g. chest
pain or severe shortness of breath) during CPR training should be
advised to stop.
CPR provider fatigue
Several manikin studies have found that chest compression
depth can decrease as soon as two minutes after starting chest
compressions.243 An in-hospital patient study showed that, even
while using real-time feedback, the mean depth of compression
deteriorated between 1.5 and 3 min after starting CPR.244 It is therefore
recommended that CPR providers change over about every two
minutes to prevent a decrease in compression quality due to CPR
provider fatigue. Changing CPR providers should not interrupt chest
compressions.
Risks during defibrillation
Many studies of public access defibrillation showed that AEDs
can be used safely by laypeople and first responders.185 A systematic
review identified eight papers that reported a total of
29 adverse events associated with defibrillation.245 The causes
included accidental or intentional defibrillator misuse, device malfunction
and accidental discharge during training or maintenance
procedures. Four single-case reports described shocks to CPR
providers from discharging implantable cardioverter defibrillators
(ICDs), in one case resulting in a peripheral nerve injury. No studies
were identified which reported harm to CPR providers from
attempting defibrillation in wet environments.
Although injury to the CPR provider from a defibrillator shock
is extremely rare, it has been shown that standard surgical gloves
do not provide adequate protection.246–249 CPR providers, therefore,
should not continue manual chest compressions during shock
delivery, and victims should not be touched during ICD discharge.
Direct contact between the CPR provider and the victim should be
avoided when defibrillation is performed.
Psychological effects
One large, prospective trial of public access defibrillation
reported few adverse psychological effects associated with CPR or
AED use that required intervention.242 Two large, retrospective,
questionnaire-based studies found that bystanders who performed
CPR regarded their intervention as a positive experience.250,251
Family members witnessing a resuscitation attempt may also
derive psychological benefit.252–254 The rare occurrences of adverse
psychological effects in CPR providers after performing CPR should
be recognised and managed appropriately.
Disease transmission
The risk of disease transmission during training and actual CPR
performance is extremely low.255–257 Wearing gloves during CPR
is reasonable, but CPR should not be delayed or withheld if gloves
are not available.
Barrier devices for use with rescue breaths
Three studies showed that barrier devices decrease transmission
of bacteria during rescue breathing in controlled laboratory
settings.258,259 No studies were identified which examined the
safety, effectiveness or feasibility of using barrier devices (such as
a face shield or face mask) to prevent victim contact when performing
CPR. Nevertheless if the victim is known to have a serious
infection (e.g. HIV, tuberculosis, hepatitis B or SARS) a barrier device
is recommended.
If a barrier device is used, care should be taken to avoid unnecessary
interruptions in CPR. Manikin studies indicate that the quality
of CPR is superior when a pocket mask is used compared to a bagvalve
mask or simple face shield.260–262
Foreign body airway obstruction (choking)
Foreign body airway obstruction (FBAO) is an uncommon
but potentially treatable cause of accidental death.263 As most
choking events are associated with eating, they are commonly witnessed.
As victims initially are conscious and responsive, there
are often opportunities for early interventions which can be life
saving.
Recognition
Because recognition of airway obstruction is the key to successful
outcome, it is important not to confuse this emergency with
fainting, myocardial infarction, seizure or other conditions that may
cause sudden respiratory distress, cyanosis or loss of consciousness.
FBAO usually occurs while the victim is eating or drinking. People
at increased risk of FBAO include those with reduced conscious
levels, drug and/or alcohol intoxication, neurological impairment
with reduced swallowing and cough reflexes (e.g. stroke, Parkinson’s
disease), respiratory disease, mental impairment, dementia,
poor dentition and older age.264
Fig. 2.5 presents the treatment algorithm for the adult with
FBAO. Foreign bodies may cause either mild or severe airway
obstruction. It is important to ask the conscious victim “Are you
choking?” The victim that is able to speak, cough and breathe has
mild obstruction. The victim that is unable to speak, has a weakening
cough, is struggling or unable to breathe, has severe airway
obstruction.
Treatment for mild airway obstruction
Coughing generates high and sustained airway pressures and
may expel the foreign body. Aggressive treatment with back blows,
abdominal thrusts and chest compressions, may cause harm and
can worsen the airway obstruction. These treatments should be
reserved for victims who have signs of severe airway obstruction.
Victims with mild airway obstruction should remain under continuous
observation until they improve, as severe airway obstruction
may subsequently develop.
Treatment for severe airway obstruction
The clinical data on choking are largely retrospective and anecdotal.
For conscious adults and children over one year of age
G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99 93
Fig. 2.5. Step by step sequence of actions for the treatment of the adult victim with foreign body airway obstruction.
94 G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99
Fig. 2.5. (Continued ).
with complete FBAO, case reports have demonstrated the effectiveness
of back blows or ‘slaps’, abdominal thrusts and chest
thrusts.265 Approximately 50% of episodes of airway obstruction
are not relieved by a single technique.266 The likelihood of success
is increased when combinations of back blows or slaps, and
abdominal and chest thrusts are used.265
Treatment of foreign body airway obstruction in an unresponsive
victim
A randomised trial in cadavers267 and two prospective studies
in anaesthetised volunteers268,269 showed that higher airway
pressures can be generated using chest thrusts compared with
abdominal thrusts. Bystander initiation of chest compression for
unresponsive or unconscious victims of FBAO was independently
associated with good neurological outcome (odds ratio, 10.57; 95%
CI, 2.472–65.059, P < 0.0001).270 Chest compressions should, therefore,
be started promptly if the victim becomes unresponsive or
unconscious. After 30 compressions attempt 2 rescue breaths, and
continue CPR until the victim recovers and starts to breathe nor-
mally.
Aftercare and referral for medical review
Following successful treatment of FBAO, foreign material may
nevertheless remain in the upper or lower airways and cause
complications later. Victims with a persistent cough, difficulty
swallowing or the sensation of an object being still stuck in the
throat should, therefore, be referred for a medical opinion. Abdominal
thrusts and chest compressions can potentially cause serious
internal injuries and all victims successfully treated with these
measures should be examined afterwards for injury.
Resuscitation of children (see also Recognition of Cardiac
Arrest section) and victims of drowning (see also The Chain
of Survival section)
Many children do not receive resuscitation because potential
CPR providers fear causing harm if they are not specifically trained
in resuscitation for children. This fear is unfounded: it is far better
to use the adult BLS sequence for resuscitation of a child than to
do nothing. For ease of teaching and retention, laypeople should
be taught that the adult sequence may also be used for children
who are not responsive and not breathing normally. The following
minor modifications to the adult sequence will make it even more
suitable for use in children:
• Give 5 initial rescue breaths before starting chest compressions.
• Give CPR for 1 min before going for help in the unlikely event the
CPR provider is alone.
• Compress the chest by at least one third of its depth; use 2 fingers
for an infant under one year; use 1 or 2 hands for a child over 1
year as needed to achieve an adequate depth of compression.
The same modifications of 5 initial breaths and 1 min of CPR by
the lone CPR provider before getting help, may improve outcome
for victims of drowning. This modification should be taught only
to those who have a specific duty of care to potential drowning
victims (e.g. lifeguards).
Collaborators
Leo L. Bossaert, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium,
Antonio Caballero, Emergency Department, Hospital Universitario
Virgen del Rocío, Sevilla, Spain,
Pascal Cassan, Global First Aid Reference Centre, International Federation
of Red Cross and Red Crescent, Paris, France,
Cristina Granja, Emergency and Intensive Care Department, Hospital
de Faro, Centro Hospitalar do Algarve, Porto, Portugal,
Claudio Sandroni, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive
Care, Catholic University School of Medicine, Rome, Italy,
David A. Zideman, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London,
UK,
Jerry P. Nolan, Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care
Medicine, Royal United Hospital, Bath, UK,
Ian Maconochie, Paediatric Emergency Medicine and NIHR BRC,
Imperial College, London, UK,
Robert Greif, Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain Medicine,
University Hospital Bern and University Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
Conflicts of interest
Gavin D. Perkins Editor Resuscitation
Jasmeet Soar Editor Resuscitation
Anthony J. Handley Medical advisor BA, Virgin, Places for
people, Life saving Societies, Trading
Company Secretary RCUK
Giuseppe Ristagno Expert advice ZOLL: ECG interpretation
Maaret Castren Medical advisory Board Falck Foundation
Rudolph W. Koster Medical advisor Physio Control and
HeartSine, Research grants PhysioControl,
Philips, Zoll, Cardiac Science, Defibtech,
Jolife
Volker Wenzel Research grants, Medical advisor, Speakers
honorarium “AOP Orphan” Pharma
Jan-Thorsten Gräsner No conflict of interest reported
Koenraad G. Monsieurs No conflict of interest reported
Michael A. Smyth No conflict of interest reported
Theresa Mariero Olasveengen No conflict of interest reported
Violetta Raffay No conflict of interest reported
G.D. Perkins et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 81–99 95
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