Adobe Systems Department of Biophysics, Medical Faculty, Masaryk University in Brno 1 Lectures on Medical Biophysics X-ray Imaging (XRI) and CT rontgen The original image of Roentgen's Wife's hand apr7xr1a hounsfield Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen 1845 - 1923 Godfrey N. Hounsfield 1919 - 2004 Adobe Systems 2 X-Ray Imaging ØX-ray imaging (XRI) is still one of the most important diagnostic methods used in medicine. It provides mainly morphological (anatomical) information - but may also provide some physiological (functional) information. ØIts physical basis is the different attenuation of X-rays in different body tissues. Ø ØWe have to keep in mind that X-rays may lead to serious health effects (e.g., cancer) for both patients and healthcare professionals (HCP). Thus, strict legal radiation protection safety measures exist to avoid any unnecessary harm to both patients and the HCP. We will deal with them in a special lecture. Adobe Systems 3 Content of the Lecture ØProjection XRI devices ØImage formation Ø ØProjection X-ray devices for special purposes ØCT ØRadiation dose and health risk Adobe Systems 4 Projection XRI Devices http://www.fnhk.cz/temp/paragraph_center_zoom_1188.jpg http://www.hdtdental.cz/picture/large/280_intra.jpg http://www.mephacentrum.cz/_data/section-1/bigs/78.jpg Adobe Systems 5 X-Ray Production – Low Power X-Ray Tube used in Dental Units Scheme of an X-ray tube. K – hot filament cathode, W – tungsten plate. Bez názvu5 Adobe Systems 6 High-Power Rotating Anode Tube Bez názvu6 7 Production of X-rays ØAn electron with an electric charge e (1.602·10-19 C) in an electrostatic field with potential difference U (voltage, in this case it is the voltage across the anode and the cathode) has potential energy Ep: Ep = U·e ØIn the moment just before impact of the electron onto the anode, its potential energy Ep is fully transformed into its kinetic energy EK. Thus: Ep = EK = U·e = ½ m·v2 ØOn impact, the EK is transformed into x-ray photon energy (less than 1%) and heat energy (99%). This heat can damage the tube. 8 Photon Energy and Tube Voltage ØIf ALL the kinetic energy of the accelerated electron is transformed into a SINGLE X-ray photon, this photon will have energy: E = h·f = U·e ØThis is the maximum energy of the emitted photons. It is directly proportional to the voltage U across the anode and cathode. h is the Planck constant. Ø ØHence if we want to increase the energy of the photons all we have to do is increase the voltage! Ø ØThe higher the energy of the photons the less they are attenuated by the body - the higher the penetration. This is important when imaging thick body parts or fat patients! , Adobe Systems 9 Photon Energy Histogram E x-rayspect Number of photons with certain amount of energy Adobe Systems 10 Main Parts of the XRI Device ØX-ray tube ØVoltage-Current Generator: -High Voltage Transformer – supplies high voltage (up to 150kV) -Rectifier - produces unidirectional tube electron current -When increasing the magnitude of the electron beam current (by changing the cathode heating) the photon fluence rate (i.e. number of photons per unit area per second) of the X-ray beam increases - however the energy of individual photons does not. -The energy of the individual photons can be increased by increasing the voltage between the anode and cathode. ØControl panel – today most parameters of the device (including voltage and current) are controlled by means of a computer. It is located outside the examination room or behind a shield made of glass containing lead (to protect the radiological assistant). ØMain mechanical parts: tube stand, examination table, grid for removing scattered photons (‘Bucky’), ØX-ray detector: cassette with radiographic film and adjacent fluorescent screens (in radiography) or image intensifier (both on the way out) or flat panel digital detector (in fluoroscopy or in general). Adobe Systems 11 Passage of X-rays through Patient's Body ØX-rays emitted from a small focal area of the anode propagate in all directions. In the tube envelope, some low energy photons are absorbed. Further absorption of these photons occurs in the primary filter, made of aluminium sheet. It absorbs low energy photons which would be absorbed by surface tissues and do not contribute to the image formation (unnecessary patient dose). X-ray beam is delimited by rectangular collimator plates made of lead. ØThe rays then pass through the body where transmission or absorption or scattering may occur. After that they pass through the grid, which is in front of the detector to remove scattered photons as these would degrade the image. Adobe Systems 12 Image Formation ØX-ray image is an analogy of a ‘shadow’ cast by a semitransparent and structured body illuminated by light beam coming form an almost point source. The image is formed due to different attenuation of the beam by the different body tissues and by projection of the structures on a film or an electronic X-ray detector. ØThe image can be visualised by means of ̶Radiographic film / screen and subsequent development ̶Digital plate and displaying image on a PC monitor ̶Image intensifier and digital CCD camera connected to a monitor Adobe Systems 13 Attenuation of Radiation A beam of X-rays (any radiation) passes through a substance: absorption + scattering = attenuation A small decrease of radiation intensity -dI in a thin substance layer is proportional to its thickness dx, intensity I of radiation falling on the layer, and a specific constant m: -dI = I.dx.m After rewriting: dI/I = -dx.m After integration: I = I0e-mx I is intensity of radiation passed through the layer of thickness x, I0 is the intensity of incoming radiation, m is linear coefficient of attenuation [m-1] depending on kind of radiation, medium and its density. The mass attenuation coefficient m/r does not depend on the density. • The symbol „d“ comes from differential calculus, we can imagine it as a very small change. Adobe Systems 14 Cassettes for Radiographic Films FLUORESCENT screens reduce dose of radiation about 50-times Adobe Systems 15 Digital Imaging Plates Matrix of amorphous silicon (aSi) photodiode light sensors Large grid Imaging plate consists of an array of very small sensors Phosphorescent layer of CsI (necessary for patient dose reduction as aSi is not good absorber of X-rays) electronic signal Detector_w120_h95 DigitalBucky_unit_w120_h95 „bucky“ – see slide 24 Adobe Systems 16 Image Intensifier ZESILOV R – X-ray tube, P - patient, O1 – primary picture on a fluorescent screen, G – glass carrier, F – fluorescent screen, FK - photocathode, FE – focussing electrodes (electron optics), A - anode, O2 – secondary image on the anodic screen, V – video-camera. Individual parts are not proportionally depicted. Adobe Systems 17 Different Ways how to Obtain DIGITAL Images (mammographic systems) department7fig1 http://www.moffitt.org/moffittapps/ccj/v5n1/department7.html Adobe Systems 18 Blurring of the Image No radiograph (an X-ray image) is absolutely sharp. Boundaries between tissues are depicted as a gradual change of gray scale. This non-sharpness (blurring) has several reasons: 1)Movement blur – accidental, breathing, pulse waves, heart action etc. They can be reduced by shorter exposure times with more intense X-ray radiation. 2) 2)Geometric blur is caused by finite focal area (focus is not a point). The rays fall on the boundary of differently absorbing media under different angles – blurring of their contours appears 3) 3)The light emitted by fluorescent screens attached to the film or digital detector does not only illuminate the corresponding part of the film or detector, but also spreads out to surrounding areas. Adobe Systems 19 Geometric Blur (‘penumbra’) Geometric penumbra can be reduced by: -Choosing a small focal spot size (but it increases risk of damage to tube anode by heating) - Decreasing the distance between the patient and the detector - Increasing the distance between the X-ray tube and the patient penumbra Adobe Systems 20 Interactions of X-ray Photons with Matter: ABSORPTION by Photoelectric Effect (PE) ØPhoton disappears (‘is absorbed’) after hitting an atom and an electron is ejected from electron shell of the atom (typically K-shell). Part of the photon energy h·f is necessary for ionisation. Remaining part of the photon energy changes into kinetic energy (1/2m·v2) of the ejected electron. The electron knocks electrons out of atoms of the body and produces ionization of these atoms. The Einstein equation for photoelectric effect holds: Ø h·f = Eb + 1/2m·v2, Eb is binding (ionisation) energy of the electron (called also work function). Ø ØThe probability for PE increases with proton number and decreases with increasing photon energy (this is why lead is used for shielding and why higher energy beams are more penetrating). 21 Photoelectric Effect u3_18 Primary photon Secondary electron Adobe Systems 22 Interactions of X-ray Photons with Matter: Compton Scatter (CS) ̶At higher energies of photons, the photon energy is not fully absorbed – a photon of lower energy appears. The binding energy of the electron Eb is negligible in comparison with the photon energy. We can write: ̶ h·f1 = (Eb) + h·f2 + 1/2m·v2, ̶where f1 is frequency of incident photon and f2 is frequency of the scattered photon. ̶CS is more probable than PE for primary photon energies 0.5 - 5 MeV and does not depend on the the proton number of interacting atom which explains why images at such energies would be practically useless. Adobe Systems 23 Compton Scatter U3_19 Primary photon Secondary electron Adobe Systems 24 Principle of the Bucky Grid pro-213b • http://www.cwm.co.kr/pro213.htm The Bucky grid stops a substantial part of the scattered rays whilst allowing the useful photons to pass through. However unfortunately grids also absorb part of the useful radiation. Hence a higher amount of x-rays must be used to produce a good image – this increases the dose of radiation to the patient. Hence for example grids are not used with thin children as the level of scatter is low anyway. Adobe Systems 25 Use of the Contrast Agents ̶ ØThe soft tissues only slightly differ in their attenuation. Therefore they cannot be distinguished in a common radiograph. That is the reason for the use of pharmaceuticals called contrast agents. ØThe attenuation of certain tissues can be increased or lowered. Positive contrast is achieved by substances having a high proton number as the probability of the photoelectric effect is increased. A suspension of barium sulphate, “barium meal”, is used for imaging and functional examination of GIT. In examinations of blood, biliary and urinary vessels etc. compounds with high content of iodine are used. ØHollow inner body organs can be visualised by negative contrast. Air or better CO2 can be used. The cavities are filled by gas, inflated, so that they can be visualised as structures of very low attenuation (pleural space, peritoneum, brain chambers in the past). 26 Positive and Negative Contrast ct215a1 ct199b2 Contrast image of the appendix – diverticulosis – combination with negative contrast http://www.uhrad.com/ctarc/ct199b2.jpg Horseshoe kidney – positive contrast – we can see renal pelvis, calyces and also urethers http://www.uhrad.com/ctarc/ct215a2.jpg k42 Pneumoencephalograph – negative contrast of brain chambers – history of medicine http://anatomy.ym.edu.tw/Nevac/class/neuroanatomy/slide/k42.jpg Adobe Systems 27 Devices for Special Uses - Examples ØDental X-ray devices ØMammographic devices ØAngiography (image subtraction systems, formerly image intensifier based; now increasingly digital detector based) Ø 28 X-ray Devices in Dentistry 9000 control photo standard pan film 7651m.jpg (126516 bytes) http://www.gendexxray.com/765dc.htm Panoramic screening – orthopantomograpy very useful in e.g. orthodontics http://www.gendexxray.com/orthoralix-9000.htm 3leftbott X-ray image of a dental implant [USEMAP] 29 Mammography Image:Mammogram.jpg Mammography is the process of using low-dose X-rays (usually around 0.7 mSv) to examine the female breast. It is used to look for different types of tumours and cysts. In some countries routine (annual to five-yearly) mammography of older women is encouraged as a screening method to diagnose early breast cancer. It is normal to use low energy (soft) X-rays (molybdenum anode). Adobe Systems 30 Digital Subtraction Angiography ia_dsa http://zoot.radiology.wisc.edu/~block/Med_Gallery/ia_dsa.html polystar 31 Computerised Tomography - CT ØThe first patient was examined by this method in London, 1971. ØThe apparatus was invented by English physicist Hounsfield, (together with American Cormack, Nobel award for medicine, 1979) CT scannner and X-ray table. From http://www.picker.com Adobe Systems 32 Principle of CT ØPrinciple: The CT scanner is a complex instrument for measuring the X-rays attenuation in individual voxels (volume analogies of pixels) in narrow slices of tissues. ØMethod of measurement: A narrow fan-beam of X-rays is passed through the body and the merging radiation measured by an arc of detectors. This is repeated at different angles till enough information is available to be able to calculate the attenuation coefficient in the patient voxels. A „map“ of attenuation is calculated – a tomogram. Adobe Systems 33 Examples of CT Scans Metastatic lesions in brain http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/vumcdept/emergency/mayxr3.html apr7xr1a Extensive subcapsular haematoma of spleen in patient after car accident http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/vumcdept/emergency/apr7xr1a.html http://www.scielo.org.za/img/revistas/saoj/v13n2/02f02.jpg Adobe Systems 34 Advantages of CT over Projection XRI ØMuch higher contrast than projection XRI - 0.5% difference in attenuation can be resolved because: ̶Almost total elimination of effects of scatter ̶X-ray measurements are taken from many angles ØThus, we can see and examine different soft tissues. Ø ØNo overlapping of anatomical structures Ø ØLess distortion as measurements are taken from many angles Adobe Systems 35 Four Generations of CT CT 1. Generation 2. Generation 3. Generation 4. Generation 36 spiralCT2-eng Principle of Spiral (3D) CT X-ray tube and detectors revolve around the shifting patient Multislice CT and Cone beam CT 37 https://miac.unibas.ch/BIA/08-Xray-media/figs/multislice_CT.png Fast 3D reconstruction is possible https://carestreamdentalblogdotcom1.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/ct-vs-cbct-graphic.jpg 38 Hounsfield (CT) Units In order to simplify calculations we use Hounsfield Scale units (HU) for amount of attenuation. On this simplified scale water is 0 HU, air is -1000 HU, compact bone is about +1000 HU. A scale of 2000 HU is available for CT examination of body tissues. In most cases, it is senseless to attribute them to all of the grey scale levels (our eye is able to distinguish only about 250 levels of grey). Most of the soft tissue HU values range from 0 to +100. Thus we use only limited „diagnostic window“ of these units in practice, e.g. from -100 to +100. HU = W – water T – tissue k = 1000 39 „Diagnostic Window“ of HU <> http://www.teaching-biomed.man.ac.uk/student_projects/2000/mmmr7gjw/technique8.htm CTokno-english Adobe Systems 40 3D CT - Color Coding Výsledek obrázku pro 3D CT gif https://www.carestream.com/en/us/medical/products/carestream-onsight-3d-extremity-system Adobe Systems 41 Some Typical Doses ØFrom natural sources: 2 mSv per year Ø ØChest X-ray: <1 mSv Ø ØFluoroscopy: 5 mSv Ø ØCT Scan: 10 mSv Ø ØMedical doses are increasing with ‘better be safe than sorry’ medicine and the ease of use of modern imaging devices (e.g., spiral CT compared to conventional CT). Adobe Systems Appendix: Dental Radiography Devices Adobe Systems 43 better digdentalintraoralccds Direct Digital Dental Radiography CDR2 Sensor consists of photodiode matrix covered with a scintillator layer. Wireless sensors now available (using bluetooth or wifi). Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are both wireless networking standards that provide connectivity via radio waves. The main difference: Bluetooth's primary use is to replace local cables, while Wi-Fi is largely used to provide wireless, high-speed access to the Internet or a local area network. First developed in 1994, Bluetooth is a low-power, short-range (30 feet) networking specification with moderately fast transmission speeds of 800 kilobits per second. Bluetooth provides a wireless, point-to-point, "personal area network" for PDAs, notebooks, printers, mobile phones, audio components, and other devices. The wireless technology can be used anywhere you have two or more devices that are Bluetooth enabled. For example, you could send files from a notebook to a printer without having to physically connect the two devices with a cable. Adobe Systems 44 Intra-Oral Image Adobe Systems 45 opgunitinuse opgdigital Orthopantomographic (OPG) Unit Adobe Systems 46 Orthopantomographic (OPG) Image opgimage You can see the so-called braces here. Used in orthodontics. Adobe Systems 47 Extraoral Cephalometric Image cephalometric X-ray cephattachment Important for assessment of e.g. cranium development and before some orofacial surgery! Adobe Systems 48 Radiation Protection Considerations ̶Low individual dose but high collective dose technique, particularly since many young patients ̶Protect eye and thyroid (sometimes latter close to or exposed to direct beam) ̶As the dose, and therefore the risk to the developing fetus is so low there is no contraindication to radiography of women who are or may be pregnant providing that it is clinically justified. Very Good reference is: ̶RP136 European guidelines on radiation protection in dental radiology - The safe use of radiographs in dental practice. 2004. EU publication. ̶ Adobe Systems 49 Dose Optimisation for Intraoral ̶Devices ̶Constant power (CP) generator ̶filter: 1.5mm Al up to 70kV to reduce skin dose ̶Rectangular collimator recommended (if round-end collimator used, beam diameter <60mm at patient end of cone) ̶Digital devices need lower dose than film ̶Protocol ̶use 60kV with CP generator ̶minimum SSD 200mm (cone should ensure this) ̶There is no need to use a lead protective apron (to protect gonads, except in rare cases) even in cases of pregnant patients. However in the case of pregnant patients, the use of a lead apron continues to be used in some states as it may reassure the patient ̶Some have suggested using thyroid collar for young patients (in CZ they use it even for adults) Adobe Systems 50 Converting Round Collimators to Rectangular RINN Logo The UK’s Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposure) Regulations 2000 recommend the use of rectangular collimation to limit the radiation dose a patient receives during routine dental X-rays. DENTSPLY’s Rinn Universal Collimator just clips onto any round-headed long-cone X-ray unit, converting it from round to the recommended rectangular collimation, in one easy step. Adobe Systems 51 Dose Optimisation in OPG ̶Devices: ̶CP (constant power) generators ̶Automatic exposure control ̶Dead-man type switch ̶Protocol: ̶Proper patient positioning and immobilisation to avoid repeats (e.g., in case of OPG chin rests on plastic support, head held by plastic earpieces, head surrounded by plastic guard) ̶Limit field size to area of interest ̶Thyroid collar inappropriate as it interferes with the beam in the case of OPG (note however often necessary in the case of cephalometry) ̶ ̶ Authors: Vojtěch Mornstein, Carmel J. Caruana Content collaboration: Ivo Hrazdira Presentation design: Lucie Mornsteinová Last revision September 2021, soundtrack added September 2020 pro-213b k42 ia_dsa ct199b2