Adobe Systems Department of Biophysics, Medical Faculty, Masaryk University in Brno 1 Lectures on Medical Biophysics A part of this lecture was prepared based on a presentation kindly provided by Prof. Katarína Kozlíková from the Dept. of Medical Biophysics, Medical Faculty, Comenius University in Bratislava Adobe Systems Bioelectric phenomena ̶The electric signal play a key role in controlling of all vitally important organs. They ensure fast transmission of information in the organism. They propagate through nerve fibres and muscle cells where they trigger a chain of events resulting in muscle contraction. They take a part in basic function mechanisms of sensory and other body organs. ̶On cellular level, they originate in membrane systems, and their propagation is accompanied by production of electromagnetic field in the ambient medium. ̶Recording of electrical or magnetic signals from the body surface is fundamental in many important clinical diagnostic methods. Adobe Systems Biological membrane ̶It is not possible to understand the origin of resting and action membrane voltage (potential) without knowledge of structure and properties of biological membrane. ̶In principle, it is an electrically non-conducting thin bilayer (6-8 nm) of phospholipid molecules. There are also built-in macromolecules of proteins with various functions. Considering electrical phenomena, two kinds of proteins are the most important: the ion channels and pumps. In both cases these are components of transport mechanisms allowing transport of ions through the non-conducting phospholipid membrane. Adobe Systems Structure of the membrane obr-4copy Phospholipid bilayer Integral proteins Adobe Systems Channels ̶The basic mechanism of the ion exchange between internal and external medium of the cell are the membrane channels. They are protein molecules but, contrary to the pumps with stable binding sites for the transmitted ions, they form water-permeable pores in the membrane. Opening and closing of the channels (gating) is performed in several ways. Besides the electrical gating we can encounter gating controlled by other stimuli in some channels (chemical binding of substances, mechanical tension etc.). ̶The passage of ions through the channel cannot be free diffusion because most channels are characterised by certain selectivity in ion permeability. Sodium, potassium, calcium or chloride channels are distinguished. ̶In this kind of ion transport there is no need of energy delivery. Adobe Systems Electrical and chemical gating Ion transport systems Many ion transport systems were discovered in cell membranes. One of them, denoted as sodium-potassium pump (Na/K pump or Na+-K+-ATP-ase) has an extraordinary importance for production of membrane voltage. It removes Na-ions from the cell and interchanges them with K-ions. Thus, the concentrations of these ions in the intracellular and extracellular medium (they are denoted as [Na+], [K+] and distinguished by indexes i, e) are different. We can write: Working Na/K pump requires constant energy supply. This energy is delivered to the transport molecules by the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is present in the intracellular medium. Adobe Systems Principle of the sodium-potassium pump The sodium ions are released on the outer side of the membrane. Following conformation change of the ion pump molecule enables binding of potassium ions which are carried inside the cell. ion pump Adobe Systems Function of biological membranes ̶They form the interface between the cells and also between cell compartments. ̶They keep constant chemical composition inside bounded areas by selective transport mechanisms. ̶They are medium for fast biochemical turnover done by enzyme systems. ̶Their specific structure and selective ion permeability is a basis of bioelectric phenomena. Adobe Systems Excitability Characteristic feature of living systems on any level of organisation of living matter An important condition of adaptation of living organisms to environment An extraordinary ability of some specialised cells (or tissues – muscle cells, nerve cells) Each kind of excitable tissue responses most easily on a certain energetic impulse (the adequate stimulus). Another energetic impulse can also evoke an excitation but much more energy is necessary (the inadequate stimulus). Adobe Systems Resting membrane potential Adobe Systems membrane Resting membrane potential – RMP (1) Potential difference between a microelectrode inside the cell (negative potential) and a surface electrode outside the cell (zero potential) = membrane voltage = membrane potential „Non-polarisable“ electrodes are used membrane Extracellular space Extracellular space Intracellular space Adobe Systems Its values depend on: - Type of the cell - Art of the animal the cell is taken from - For identical cells – on the composition and concentration of the ion components of the extracellular liquids The value of RMP at normal ion composition of the IC and EC liquid: -100 mV to -50 mV Resting membrane potential – RMP (2) Membrane thickness ~ 10 nm Result: Electric field intensity in the membrane ~ 107 V/m To compare: Electric field intensity on the Earth’s surface ~ 102 V/m 115 Diffusion potential DP (1) Caused by diffusion of charged particles DP in non-living systems – solutions are separated by a membrane permeable for Na+ and Cl-. The compartments are electroneutral, but there is a concentration gradient Þ Diffusion of ions from [1] do [2] Hydration envelope (water molecules are bound to ions) Na+ (more) a Cl- (less) Þ faster diffusion of Cl- against (!) concentration gradient Þ Transient voltage appears across the two compartments Þ Diffusion potential 115 Electric field repulses Cl- from [2] 116 Diffusion potential DP (2) DP in living systems – the solutions are separated by a selectively permeable membrane for K+, non-permeable for pro Na+ a Cl-. In such a system, an equilibrium arises if there is no resulting flux of ions. 116 Þ Diffusion of K+ against its concentration gradient occurs until an electric gradient of the same magnitude, but of opposite direction arises Þ An equilibrium potential emerges – resulting diffusion flux is equal to zero Adobe Systems membrane Electrolyte I anions cAII cations cCI A simple example of a membrane equilibrium (1) Electrolyte II cations cCII anions cAI The same electrolyte is on both sides of the membrane but of different concentrations (cI > cII), the membrane is permeable only for cations Result: Electric double layer is formed on the membrane layer 1: anions stopped in space I layer 2: cations attracted to the anions (II) Adobe Systems membrane Electrolyte I anions cAII cations cCI A simple example of a membrane equilibrium (2) Electrolyte II cations cCII anions cAI The concentration difference ”drives” the cations, electric field of the bilayer “pushes them back” In equilibrium: potential difference U arises: jI jII - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + (Nernst equation) Adobe Systems membrane Electrolyte I anions R- anions cAII cations cCI Electrolyte II cations cCII anions cAI Donnan equilibrium (1) The same electrolyte is on both sides, concentrations are different (cI > cII), membrane is permeable for small univalent ions C+ and A-, non-permeable for R- . Diffusible ions: C+, A- diffuse freely non-diffusible ions: R- i.e. big anions In presence of R-: Equal distribution of C+ and A- cannot be achieved Þ a special case of equilibrium - Donnan equilibrium Adobe Systems membrane Electrolyte I anions R- anions cAII cations cCI Electrolyte II cations cCII anions cAI Donnan equilibrium (2) Equilibrium concentrations: Donnan ratio: Adobe Systems membrane Electrolyte I anions R- anions cAII cations cCI Electrolyte II cations cCII anions cAI Donnan equilibrium (3) - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + Donnan ratio: Donnan potential: Adobe Systems cell membrane intra extra phosphate anions protein anions Na+ Cl- K+ K+ Cl- Donnan model in living cell (1) diffuse: K+, Cl- do not diffuse: Na+, anions, also proteins and nucleic acids Concentrations: [K+] in > [K+] ex [Cl-] in < [Cl-] ex Adobe Systems Cell membrane intra extra phosphate anions protein anions Na+ Cl- K+ K+ Cl- Donnan ratio: Donnan potential: - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + + + + + + + + Donnan model in living cell (2) Adobe Systems Donnan potential (resting potential) [mV]: object: calculated: measured: K+: Cl-: cuttlefish axon - 91 - 103 - 62 frog muscle - 56 - 59 - 92 rat muscle - 95 - 86 - 92 Donnan model in living cell (3) Donnan model differs from reality: The cell and its surroundings are regarded as closed thermodynamic systems The diffusible ions are regarded as fully diffusible, the membrane is no barrier for the diffusible ions The effect of ionic pumps on the concentration of ions is neglected The interaction between membrane and ions is not considered • Adobe Systems Model of ion transport (1) We suppose: A constant concentration difference between outer and inner side of the membrane Þ constant transport rate through membrane Migration of ions through membrane Þ electric bilayer on both sides of the membrane All kinds of ions on the both sides of the membrane are considered simultaneously Empirical fact – different ions have different non-zero permeability Electrodiffusion model with smaller number of simplifications. Adobe Systems Model of ion transport (2) Goldman - Hodgkin - Katz P - permeability Adobe Systems Model of ion transport (3) „giant“ cuttlefish axon (t = 25°C): pK : pNa : pCl = 1 : 0.04 : 0.45 calculated: U = - 61 mV measured: U = - 62 mV frog muscle (t = 25°C): pK : pNa : pCl = 1 : 0.01 : 2 calculated: U = - 90 mV measured: U = - 92 mV Adobe Systems Action potential Adobe Systems Action potential ̶The concept of action potential denotes a fast change of the resting membrane potential caused by over-threshold stimulus which propagates into the adjacent areas of the membrane. ̶This potential change is connected with abrupt changes in sodium and potassium ion channels permeability. ̶The action potential can be evoked by electrical, chemical or mechanical stimuli which cause local decrease of the resting membrane potential. Adobe Systems Mechanism of action potential triggering t Um UNa Upr UK Umr 0 t AP Depolarization phase Positive feedback: gNa Þ depol Þ gNa Repolarization phase: inactivation gNa and activation gK hyperpolarization (deactivation gK) Mechanism of the action potential triggering in the cell membrane is an analogy of a monostable flip-flop electronic circuit J. Adobe Systems Adobe Systems Zápatí prezentace 31 Adobe Systems 1114 Refractory period Adobe Systems Action potential ̶Changes in the distribution of ions caused by action potential are balanced with activity of ion pumps (active transport). ̶The action potential belongs among phenomena denoted as „all or nothing“ response. Such response is always of the same size. Increasing intensity of the over-threshold stimulus thus manifests itself not as increased intensity of the action potential but as an increase in action potential frequency (rate). Adobe Systems 1111 AP propagation is unidirectional because the opposite side of the membrane is in the refractory period. Propagation of the action potential along the membrane Adobe Systems Propagation of the action potential along the neuron membrane (2) cytosol E – means voltage here, potential g = electric conductivity, it can be distinguished for individual ions (ms) Adobe Systems Propagation of AP and local currents OBR59 AP propagates along the membrane as a wave of negativity by means of local currents time Adobe Systems 1115 Saltatory conduction Conduction of action potential along the myelinated nerve fibre Adobe Systems Examples of action potentials obr-1 A – nerve fibre B – muscle cell of heart ventricle C – cell of sinoatrial node D – smooth muscle cell Adobe Systems [USEMAP] Adobe Systems Definition ̶Synapse is a specific connection between two neurons or between neurons another target cells (e.g. muscle cells), which makes possible transfer of action potentials. We distinguish: ̶Electrical synapses (gap junctions) – close connections of two cells by means of ion channels. They enable a fast two-way transfer of action potentials. ̶Chemical synapses – more frequent, specific structures, they enable one-way transfer of action potentials. Adobe Systems 119 Transmission of action potentials between neurons Adobe Systems 1117 Chemical synapse Adobe Systems Neuromuscular synapse, the junction between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber. Brain Science, Science Art, Behavioral Neuroscience, Science Gallery, Cell Forms, Motor Neuron, Cells And Tissues, Microscopic Images, Electron Microscope Mitochondrion Vesicles Synaptic gap (cleft) Chemical synapse – electron micrograph Adobe Systems Synaptic mediators (neurotransmitters) ̶The most frequent mediators (neurotransmitters) of excitation synapses are acetylcholine (in neuromuscular end plates and CNS) and glutamic acid (in CNS). Both compounds act as gating ligands mainly for sodium channels. Influx of sodium ions inside the cell evokes a membrane potential change in positive sense – towards a depolarisation of the membrane (excitation postsynaptic potential). ̶ ̶Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) is a neurotransmitter of inhibitory synapses in brain. It acts as a gating ligand of chloride channels. Chloride ions enter the cell and evoke so a membrane potential change in negative sense – membrane hyperpolarization results (inhibitory postsynaptic potential). Excitation and inhibition postsynaptic potential Summation of postsynaptic potentials Adobe Systems Summary ̶Electric phenomena on biological membranes play a key role in functioning of excitatory tissues (nerves, muscles) ̶Resting membrane potential (correctly: membrane voltage) is a result of a non-equal distribution of ions on both sides of the membrane. ̶It is maintained by two basic mechanisms: selective permeable ion channels and by transport systems – both these systems have protein character ̶Changes of membrane voltage after excitation are denoted as action potentials ̶Membrane undergoes two phases after excitation: depolarization – connected with influx of sodium ions into the cell - and subsequent repolarization – connected with efflux of potassium ions from the cell ̶In the refractory period, the membrane is either fully or partly insensitive to stimulation ̶Synapse is a connection of two cells which enables transmission of action potentials Adobe Systems Authors: Vojtěch Mornstein, Ivo Hrazdira Language collaboration: Carmel J. Caruana Last revision September 2024