Position of adjectives
Many adjectives can be used either before the noun they describe, or following linking verbs such as appear, be, become, feel, get, and seem (see Unit 21). Compare:
□ The high price surprised him.   and    □ The price seemed high.
Some adjectives are seldom or never used before the noun they describe. These include -ft- some adjectives formed by adding a prefix 'a-', often to a noun or verb: afraid, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake, aware:
□ The horse was alone in the field, [but not The alone horse...)
Some of these adjectives with an 'a-' prefix have related adjectives that can be used either before a noun or after a linking verb. Compare:
□ The animal was alive, and A living animal, (or A live animal./ The animal was living.) Other pairs like this include afraid - frightened, alike - similar, alone - lone, asleep - sleeping.
ir some adjectives used to describe health and feelings: content, fine, glad, ill (but note 'ill health'), sorry, (un)sure, upset (but 'an upset stomach'), (un)well (but 'He's not a well man'):
□ My son felt unwell, (but not My unwell son...)
These adjectives are sometimes used between an adverb and noun e.g. 'a terminally ill patient'
Emphasising adjectives are used to emphasise your feelings about something. Compare:
□ I felt a fool,   and   □ 1 felt a complete fool, (for emphasis)
Some emphasising adjectives (such as complete, and also absolute, entire, mere, sheer, total, utter) are seldom or never used after a linking verb:
□ It was a total failure, (but not usually 'The failure was total.')
Classifying adjectives are used to say that something is of a particular type. For example, we can talk about 'democratic decisions', where 'democratic' distinguishes them from other types of decision. Other classifying adjectives include atomic, chemical, cubic, digital, environmental, medical, phonetic; annual, general, occasional, northern (etc.), maximum, minimum, underlying. Classifying adjectives are seldom or never used after a linking verb:
□ a nuclear explosion (but not usually 'The explosion was nuclear', unless we particularly want to emphasise a contrast with other kinds of explosion)
Qualitative adjectives are used to give the quality that a thing or person has. We use them either directly before a noun or after a linking verb. Compare:
□ a beautiful sunset and □ The sunset was beautiful.
Note that some classifying adjectives can also be used with different meanings as qualitative adjectives and placed after a linking verb. Compare:
□ The country's economic reforms,   and   □ The process isn't economic. (= not profitable) Other adjectives like this include academic, conscious, educational, (il)legal, scientific.
Many adjectives can be used immediately after a noun, at the beginning of a reduced relative clause (see Unit 69B). For example -•& adjectives before a ro-infinitive, or a prepositional phrase as part of the adjective phrase:
□ It was a speech calculated to appeal to the unions.
□ He is a manager capable of taking difficult decisions.
■ir some -ible and -able adjectives such as available, imaginable, possible, suitable. However, we use these adjectives immediately after a noun only when the noun follows the or when the noun is made definite by what follows in a relative clause:
□ This was the most difficult decision imaginable.
□ It is a treatment suitable for all children with asthma.
■b the adjectives concerned, involved, opposite, present, proper, responsible. These words have different meanings when they are used before a noun and immediately after it. Compare:
□ All the people present (= who were there) approved of the decision, and
□ I was asked for my present address. (= my address now)
Exercises
Unit 66
66.1 Suggest corrections to these sentences, or write / if they are already correct. (B)
1 After the accident I tried to comfort the upset driver of the car.
.....A-ffcer th& accicUflfr ,1 faietl to com-fort> ffte- driver of the-,      who wag; MPSfffrs......
2 In the distance I could see an alone figure walking towards me.
3 It wasn't a great surprise when Ken died as he hadn't been a well man for years.
4 I remember her as a glad person who was always smiling.
5 He stood at the bedroom door, looking at his asleep daughter.
6 The fire on the ship is now under control, but there are still a lot of afraid passengers on board.
7 She spent most of her life nursing seriously ill children in the hospital.
8 The two children were of an alike age.
9 We were unsure which way to go.
10 The sorry girls apologised to their teacher for their behaviour.
66.2 Choose one pair of words to complete each pair of sentences. In some sentences, you can use either adjective in the pair, in which case write them both; in others you can use only one of them. (C)
domestic - unsafe   educational - entertaining      inevitable - utter legal - stupid serious - underlying
1 a The experiment was a/an.................................... failure.
b After Dr Owen left the project, its failure was.....................................
2 a None of the equipment in the warehouse is.....................................
b All....................................equipment should be switched off at the end of the day.
3 a The trip to the wildlife park was a/an....................................experience.
b The toys were....................................and the children played with them for hours.
4 a The fault in the computer system is....................................enough to disrupt all the work in the
office.
b The.................................... problem has not yet been solved.
5 a  He was involved in a....................................argument with his neighbour over some trees in the
garden.
b It's completely....................................to charge a fee for entry into the museum.
66.3 Write the word given in brackets in one of the spaces in each sentence, either before or after the noun. If both positions are possible, indicate this. (D)
1 The party was excellent, and I'd like to thank all the....................................people.....................................
(concerned)
2 As the....................................minister....................................for the health service, I think he should resign.
(responsible)
3 The new machinery was intended to increase output, but it seems to have had the ....................................effect.....................................(opposite)
4 The pond on the village green was filled in with the....................................approval....................................of
most local residents, (apparent)
5 Children are only admitted when accompanied by a/an....................................adult.....................................
(responsible)
6 It's the only....................................room....................................in the hotel that night, (available)
7 I live on one side of the road and my mother lives in the....................................house.....................................
(opposite)
8 Cars drive too fast past the school and....................................teachers....................................have complained
to the police, (concerned)
9 There is....................................financial advice....................................if you need it. (available)
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Gradable and non-gradable adjectives (1)
If an adjective is gradable it can be used with adverbs such as very or extremely to say that a thing or person has more or less of a particular quality. Here are some examples of adjectives used as gradable in their most common meanings:
Grading adverbs
a bit, dreadfully, extremely, hugely, immensely, intensely, rather, reasonably, slightly, very
angry, big, busy, clever, common, deep, fast, friendly, happy, important, low, popular, quiet, rich, strong, weak, young
Gradable adjectives
□ She was extremely rich. □ The people there are reasonably friendly.
Non-gradable adjectives are not used with adverbs such as very or extremely because we don't usually imagine degrees of the quality referred to. With non-gradable adjectives we can use adverbs which emphasise their extreme or absolute nature, such as absolutely, completely, etc. Many classifying adjectives (see Unit 66) are usually non-gradable. Adverbs such as almost, exclusively, etc., which indicate the extent of the quality, are commonly used with classifying adjectives. Here are some examples of adjectives used as non-gradable in their most common meanings:
Non-grading adverbs
absolutely, completely, entirely, perfectly, practically, simply, totally, utterly, virtually; almost, exclusively, fully, largely, mainly, nearly, primarily
awful, excellent, huge, impossible, superb, terrible, unique, unknown, whole; domestic, environmental
(see Unit 66C)
Non-gradable adjectives
□ It was absolutely superb.
□ She gave us a completely impossible problem to solve.
Gradable adjectives are sometimes used with non-grading adverbs such as absolutely and totally, and non-gradable adjectives are sometimes used with grading adverbs such as extremely, rather and very, particularly when we want to give special emphasis or when we are being humorous (see also Unit 68):
□ What you're asking isn't just difficult - it's extremely impossible! (grading adverb + non-gradable adjective)
□ You've won a hundred pounds? Wow, you're virtually rich! (non-grading adverb + gradable adjective)
Note that not all the adverbs can go with all the adjectives given in each of the tables above. For example, we can say 'absolutely huge', but we wouldn't usually say 'completely huge' unless it was for particular emphasis or for humour.
The adverbs fairly (= to quite a large degree, but usually less than 'very'), really (= 'very (much)') and pretty (= similar to 'fairly'; used in informal contexts) are commonly used with both gradable and non-gradable adjectives:
□ She's fairly popular at school. □ It was a fairly awful film.
□ I'm really busy at the moment. □ The flooding was really terrible.
□ It's a pretty important exam. □ The bill was pretty huge.
However, notice that we don't generally use fairly (or very) with gradable adjectives such as essential, invaluable, perfect, superb, tremendous and wonderful which indicate that something is very good or necessary:
□ Some experience is really/pretty essential for the job. (not ...fairly essential...)
□ The weather that day was really/pretty perfect, (not ...fairly perfect.)
Exercises
Unit 67
M  Write very in the spaces before gradable adjectives. (There are 5 of these.) Before the non-gradable adjectives write the following adverbs. Try to use a different one each time. (A) absolutely    almost    completely    exclusively    largely    mainly practically
1 The bridge is now....................................complete.        8 I was in a/an....................................permanent
2 He acted in a/an.................................... professional state of suspense.
way. 9 1 thought she was....................................attractive.
3 The material is....................................cotton. 10 Until last year the club was....................................
4 The food was....................................excellent. male.
5 Her explanation was....................................clear. 11 Small black cars are not....................................
6 Their actions were....................................illegal. visible.
7 The new restaurant is.................................... 12 The railway is.................................... underground.
popular.
'.2  Use an adverb + adjective in your response, as in 1. (A) How would you feel if...
1 a friend said s/he had just won a million pounds? .....L'4u..te...^.§.^MM~4^bfe^«......
2 your best friend told you s/he was emigrating to Australia?
3 someone broke a window in your house or flat?
4 a complete stranger told you that you were very beautiful/handsome?
5 you lost some airline tickets you had just bought?
67.3  Make corrections to the italicised parts of this text where necessary. (A) Dear Alan
I'm writing this letter from my new flat in Stratford. It's in an (1) absolutely old building which was (2) totally renovated last year. Fortunately, I didn't have to do much decorating when I moved in. As you know, I'm (3) hugely useless at DIY so I was (4) absolutely happy about that. The building is (5) reasonably unique in this part of Stratford, as most others around are (6) rather modern, and the view across the river from my sitting room is (7) simply superb. The flat's (8) simply small, but (9) completely comfortable for me.
My neighbours are (10) very friendly and usually (11) fully quiet. The only problem is that the woman upstairs plays the trumpet and I find it (12) a bit impossible to read when she's playing. I get (13) slightly angry about this, but she doesn't play for long each time, so it's not an (14) extremely terrible problem.
I know that the weather has been (15) dreadfully awful recently, so it's been difficult to for you to get here, but you must come over one evening. There's an (16) absolutely marvellous restaurant nearby that we could go to.
Hope all is well, Eva
.4 Cross out any incorrect or unlikely alternatives. (B)
1 Her advice was fairly/ really invaluable.
2 Our neighbours are really/ fairly friendly.
3 I thought his performance as Hamlet was fairly/ really tremendous.
4 The children kept pretty/ very quiet during the concert.
5 The view from the window was very/ pretty wonderful.
6 Their co-operation is pretty/ very essential if we want the project to go ahead.
7 The weather was really/ fairly perfect for a long walk.
8 In this photograph she looked really! very young.
9 The workmanship in the furniture was pretty/ very superb. 10 The disease is fairly/ pretty common in this part of the country.
to for Uous
135
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives (2)
Some adjectives have both gradable and non-gradable senses.
(i) Some adjectives have different senses when they are gradable and non-gradable. Compare:
□ Smith is a very common name. (= frequently found; gradable) and
□ We have a lot of common interests. (= shared; non-gradable; not very)
□ The house is very old. (= existed many years; gradable) and
□ I met my old politics professor the other day. (= former; non-gradable; not very)
□ Sue's shoes are very clean. (= not dirty; gradable) and
□ He left the town because he wanted to make a clean break with the past. (= starting again in different circumstances; non-gradable; not very)
Other adjectives like this include civil, clean, critical, electric (= 'exciting' when gradable), empty, false, late, odd, original, particular, straight.
(ii) Some adjectives have similar meanings when they are gradable and non-gradable. However, when they are gradable we talk about the quality that a person or thing has (i.e. they are qualitative adjectives and therefore can be used with an adverb), and when they are non-gradable we talk about the category or type they belong to (i.e. they are classifying adjectives). Compare:
□ I don't know where he came from, but he sounded slightly foreign. (= not from this country; gradable) and
□ She is now advising on the government's foreign policy. (= concerning other countries; non-gradable)
□ They had a very public argument. (= seen/heard by a lot of people; gradable) and
□ He was forced to resign by public pressure. (= from many people in the community; non-gradable)
□ She had a rather wild look in her eyes. (= uncontrolled or frightened; gradable) and
□ Even if it is raised by humans, a lion will always be a wild animal. (= not tame; non-gradable)
Other adjectives like this include academic, adult, average, diplomatic, genuine, guilty, human, individual, innocent, mobile, private, professional, scientific, technical, true.
(iii) When nationality adjectives are non-gradable we mean that a person or thing comes from a particular country; when they are gradable we mean that they have supposed characteristics of that country. Compare:
□ There's a shop around the corner that sells Italian bread, and
□ Giovanni has lived in Britain for 20 years, but he's still very Italian.
In spoken English in particular, we can use good and..., lovely and..., and nice and... followed by another gradable adjective in order to emphasise the second adjective. Possible patterns include: good and ready and more colloquially good and proper/relaxed/strong (but not usually 'good and beautiful/rich/tall'); lovely and cosy/dry/sunny/warm (but not usually 'lovely and decent/empty short'); nice and bright/clcan/cold/comfortable/early/frcsh/quiet/simple/ soft/tidy/warm (but not usually 'nice and interesting/handsome/exciting'):
□ If you're all feeling good and relaxed after the break, let's get on with the meeting.
□ It's lovely and warm in here. Freezing outside, though.
□ 'Shall we get some strawberries?' 'Yes, they look nice and fresh.'
We can also link comparative adjectives (see Unit 72) with and to talk about an increasing degree of the quality described in the adjective. We use more and more + adjective in a similar way:
□ As she got more and more excited, her voice got higher and higher and louder and louder.
□ The taxi driver just drove faster and faster and faster until I told him to stop, and I got out.
136
Exercises
Unit 68
68.1  Choose from these adjectives to complete the sentences. Use each of the adjectives twice, once with a gradable sense and once with a non-gradable sense. With a gradable sense, write very before the adjective. It may help to use a dictionary for this exercise. (Ai)
critical      empty      false      late      original straight
1 The novel was praised by the judges for its -*£BlJ8$&t&.....use of language.
2 I wasn't frightened by the manager's warning that I would be dismissed if I came late again. It
was just a/an....................................threat that she had used before.
3 The train is....................................again. I wonder if the bad weather has delayed it.
4 The report was....................................of the police officers involved in the investigation.
5 I had a/an....................................choice between working for my father and having no job at all.
6 She was accused of giving.................................... information during the trial.
7 After such a long period without rain, the reservoirs are now.....................................
8 The driver of the overturned lorry was in a/an ....................................condition in hospital last night.
9 I was given the oil painting by my....................................uncle Simon.
10 The.................................... fireplaces had been removed and replaced by more modern ones.
11 The path to the summit of the hill was....................................and steep.
12 Many of the people I met were quite sincere, but some seemed...................................., so that I could
never be sure if they meant what they said.
68.2 Complete the sentences with these adverb + adjective phrases. Use the same adjective in each pair of sentences, but include the adverb in only one. The First pair is done for you. (Aii)
(largely) academic     (fairly) average (extremely) diplomatic
(very) human (intensely) private      (highly) technical
1 a The ...M.Vf.Q4&.....temperature on the island is a pleasant 23.4 °C.
b Brecston is a/an.....fM^.MSTM^.....town in the south of England.
2 a The instructions were....................................and clearly meant for an expert.
b Paul got a job providing....................................support for people having computing problems.
3 a Being frightened in this situation is a.................................... response and nothing to be ashamed of.
b Near the top of the mountain there were signs of....................................habitation, perhaps
centuries old.
4 a  I found it difficult to understand the....................................talk that Professor Downs gave.
b The....................................standards at the school are very high.
5 a  He worked hard to afford a....................................education for his three children.
b She was a/an....................................person and had few close friends.
6 a After Mary left university she worked in the....................................service for a number of years.
b When he was asked to comment on the French President's decision he gave a/an
....................................answer, not wanting to appear critical.
68.3 Suggest a phrase to complete each sentence. Begin with good/lovely/nice + and ... and then choose an appropriate adjective, as in 1. (B)
1 Now that the room is painted yellow, it looks J^y^...M4...l?^ht.......
2 I've put you in the spare room at the back of the house, so it'll be........................................................................
3 'Have you felt the material my new coat's made of?' 'Oh, it's........................................................................'
4 The oranges looked quite old, but when I cut into them they were........................................................................
5 There's no point in trying to persuade Tom. He won't make up his mind until he's
137
Participle adjectives and compound adjectives
Some -ing forms (present participles) and -ed forms (past participles) of verbs can be used as adjectives. Most of these participle adjectives can be used before the noun they describe or following linking verbs (see Unit 21):
□ The hotel had a welcoming atmosphere.
□ I found this broken plate in the kitchen cupboard.
□ The students' tests results were pleasing.
□ My mother seemed delighted with the present.
We can use many participle adjectives immediately after nouns when they identify or define the noun. This use is similar to defining relative clauses (see GR: J1-J2) and they are often called 'reduced relatives':
□ I counted the number of people waiting, (or ...people who were waiting.)
□ We had to pay for the rooms used, (or ...the rooms that were used.)
Some of these are rarely used before the noun:
□ None of the candidates applying was accepted, (but not ...the applying candidates...)
□ My watch was among the things taken, (but not ...the taken things.) Participle adjectives like this include caused, found, included, provided.
Others can be used before or immediately after nouns. For example, we can say:
□ Rub the area infected with this cream.      or      □ Rub the infected area with this cream.
□ The crowd watching grew restless. or      □ The watching crowd grew restless. Participle adjectives like this include affected, alleged, allocated, broken, chosen, identified, interested, remaining, resulting, stolen.
In formal English, that and those can be used as pronouns before a participle adjective:
□ The office temperature is lower than that required by law. (= the temperature which is required)
□ The quality of the motors is lower than those manufactured elsewhere. (= the motors which are manufactured elsewhere)
Notice that those can mean 'people':
□ Here is some advice for those (= people) preparing to go on holiday.
Many compound adjectives include a participle adjective. Common patterns are: adverb + -ed participle         □ They are well-behaved children.
adverb + -ing participle       □ China's economic boom is generating a fast-growing market at
home.
adjective + -ed participle      □ She seems to live on ready-made frozen meals. adjective + -ing participle     □ He's the longest-serving employee in the company. noun + -ed participle □ The public square was tree-lined.
noun + -ing participle □ I hope it will be a money-making enterprise.
-ed participle + particle        □ Did it really happen, or was it a made-up story? (from two-word verbs)
We can use some participle adjectives only in adjective compounds. For example, we can't say '...behaved children' or '...a making enterprise' as the sense is incomplete without the adverb or noun. Other compounds like this include London-based, Paris-born, brick-built, easy-going, peace-keeping, long-lasting, good-looking, home-made, hair-raising, far-reaching, well-resourced, sweet-smelling, strange-sounding, soft-spoken, sour-tasting, nerve-wracking.
Notice that many other compound adjectives do not include participle adjectives:
□ The problem is short-term. □ It was just a small-scale project.
Exercises
Unit 69
Replace the underlined parts of these sentences with a present or past participle adjective formed from one of the following verbs. Give alternative positions for the adjective if possible. (B) identify      include      interest      provide      remain result
1 I offered to pay for any damage that was the result......c^scd......{not .,.anv caused damage.)
2 Steps are being taken by telephone engineers to solve the problems which have been noticed.
3 Visitors who want to find out more can buy a booklet with further information.
4 Please answer the questions on the sheet that has been given to you.
5 The holiday cost £1200, with flights which were part of the total.
6 Although he didn't want to appear on TV, the publicity that was the consequence was good for his business.
7 Just before serving the pasta, sprinkle over any cheese that is left over.
In which of the sentences can the participle adjective you have written be placed before the noun?
Complete the sentences with either that or those followed by an appropriate participle adjective. (C)
1 Her time for the 10,000 metres was four seconds faster than.................................... by the winner of
last month's European Championship.
2 Vegetables from the east of the country are generally cheaper than ....................................in the west.
3 The company claims that its electric goods are more reliable than.................................... by its
competitors.
4 The top wind speed was even higher than....................................in the great storm of 1987.
5 Levels of heart disease among people in rural areas are considerably lower than among ....................................in urban areas.
Complete the second sentences using a compound adjective from D to replace the underlined information in the first sentences. (D)
1 The company is organised from New York. It is a.....H^..JM^M^...mm^......
2 The school has all the things it needs, with sufficient books and computers. The school is ........................................................................, with sufficient books and computers.
3 I found that the whole experience made me tense and worried. I found the whole experience
4 The proposed changes will have a major influence on a large number of people. The proposed changes will be.........................................................................
69.4 Combine the following words to make compound adjectives to replace the underlined parts of these sentences. Make any other necessary changes. (D)
clean      eye     4U-     wide       catching     equipped      ranging shaven
1 At the age of 16 children do not have the ability or experience to take on the role of parents.
are Unequipped......
2 The discussions between the presidents dealt with a great variety of topics.
3 I almost didn't recognise Mark. When I last saw him he had a beard and moustache, but now he has no beard or moustache.
4 The advertisements for the new car are very noticeable.
139
Adjective + to-infinitive, -ing, that-clause, wh-clause
When an adjective comes after a linking verb (e.g. appear, be, become, seen; see Unit 21) we can use a number of patterns after the adjective including a to-infinitive, -ing, that-clause, and wh-clause. (For It + linking verb + adjective, see B.)
	adjective +	example adjectives used in this pattern
i	to-infinitive □ You're free to leave at any time you want.	(un)able, careful, crazy, curious, difficult, easy, foolish, free, good, hard, impossible, inclined, mad, nice, prepared, ready, stupid, welcome, willing
ii	-ing □ He was busy doing his homework.	busy, crazy, foolish, mad, stupid; (after the verb feel) awful, awkward, bad, good, guilty, terrible
Hi	that-clause □ He became worried (that) she might leap out from behind a door.	afraid, alarmed, amazed, angry, annoyed, ashamed, astonished, aware, concerned, disappointed, glad, (un)happy, pleased, shocked, sorry, upset, worried; certain, confident, positive, sure
iv	wh-clause □ I'm not certain (of/ about) why he wants to borrow the money	afraid, not aware/unaware, not certain/ uncertain, doubtful, not sure/unsure, worried
V	to-infinitive or that-clause □ She was afraid to say anything. □ I was afraid that I would be late.	the adjectives in Hi above, except aware, confident and positive
vi	to-infinitive or -ing □ He'd be stupid to leave now. □ He'd be stupid giving up the job.	crazy, foolish, mad, stupid
vii	-ing or that-clause □ She felt awful leaving him with all the clearing up. □ She felt awful that she wasn't able to help.	(after the verb feel) awful, awkward, bad, good, guilty, terrible
It + linking verb + adjective
We can sometimes use it + linking verb + adjective + to-infinitive as an alternative to subject + linking verb + adjective + to-infinitive (see also Units 96 and 97). Compare:
□ She is easy to understand,   and   It is easy to understand her.
□ The fireworks were amazing to watch,   and   It was amazing to watch the fireworks. Notice that in informal speech we can use an -ing form instead of a to-infinitive:
□ It is easy understanding her. It was amazing watching the fireworks. Other adjectives that can be used in this pattern include annoying, awkward, easy, good, interesting, lovely, simple, terrific, wonderful. Notice that we can use a similar pattern with adjective + wh- or that-dause (see Unit 96A):
□ It is not clear why he did it. It was odd that she left so suddenly.
After certain adjectives we often include of + subject between the adjective and a to-infinitive:
□ It was rude (of them) to criticise her. (or They were rude to criticise her.)
Other adjectives which often take of + subject in this pattern include brave, kind, mean, thoughtful, unprofessional, unreasonable.
When we talk about how somebody reacts to a situation we can use it + make with an adjective and to-infinitive, -ing or that-clause:
□ It made me angry (to discover) that so much money was wasted, (or It made me angry discovering that...; or I was angry to discover that...)
Other adjectives used in this way include ashamed, furious, glad, miserable, nervous, sad, tired, uncomfortable.
Exercises
Unit 70
70.1   Choose an appropriate verb to complete these sentences. Use a to-infinitive or -ing form, giving alternatives where possible. (A)
cheat       earn        know      leave      open panic
reduce      resign      see talk       turn underestimate
1 I'm afraid I can't afford that much. Would you be prepared....................................the price if I pay cash?
2 Jack was stupid....................................in the exam. He was bound to get caught.
3 He felt good....................................that he had helped solve the problem.
4 Don't feel that you need to stay to the very end of the conference. You're free....................................at
any time.
5 I hadn't been to Wolverton since I was a child, and I was curious.................................... how it had
changed.
6 Anyone trying to climb the mountain would be foolish....................................the challenge facing them.
7 People told me I was crazy....................................a shop in this part of the city, but it's been very
successful so far.
8 She was too busy ....................................on the phone to notice that Dave had come into the room.
9 She felt guilty....................................such a lot when so many people in the country were living in
poverty.
10 It's so difficult to get a job at the moment you'd be mad.....................................
11 Some people would be inclined....................................if they smelt smoke in the house.
12 I felt awful....................................people away from the concert, but there just wasn't any more room.
70.2 Here is part of a letter in which Sarah is describing her holiday in Thailand with Mark. Where necessary, correct the italicised text. (A)
...After a couple of days Mark announced that he was going walking in the hills near the hotel. I thought he was (1) stupid that he would go alone and that it was dangerous. But he said that he was (2) confident not to get lost. We ended up arguing and finally he stormed off, saying he (3) wasn't sure when he'd be back. I went into town, but I felt a bit (4) guilty to shop all day. On the bus on the way back to the hotel I got talking to a local woman and (5) was concerned learning that it got very cold in the hills at night. I started (6) to get worried that he might be in danger, but I (7) wasn't certain what to do. But when I got back to the hotel, there was Mark (8) busy to drink orange juice by the pool. He'd decided not to go walking after all! He said he (9) was sorry upsetting me. At first 1 was angry and said he was stubborn and that he just (10) wasn't prepared admitting that I'd been right. But really I was just (11) pleased that he was safe...
70.3 Rewrite these sentences using It + be + adjective... If possible, use of + a personal pronoun after the adjective (as in 1). (B)
1 She was brave to spend the night in the old house alone.
.....It.. britye ...of....H ......
2 Such a magnificent performance was wonderful to hear.
3 You were mean to eat all the cake and not leave any for me.
4 They were unreasonable to complain about the exam results.
5 The top of the jar was awkward to get off.
6 The shelves were simple to put up.
7 He was unprofessional to criticise the head teacher in front of the staff.
8 You were kind to give birthday presents to the children.
70.4 Complete these sentences with It made me... and any appropriate adjective. (B)
1 .....!L.m(^....me...cu^ry...............to hear how she had been insulted.
2 ........................................................................listening to his lies.
3 ........................................................................that we wouldn't be working together again.
4 ........................................................................to learn how badly we treated immigrants in the 1950s.
5 ........................................................................hearing the dentist's drill as I sat in the waiting room.
141
Some adverbs of manner (saying how something is done) are formed from an adjective + -ly: sudden -» suddenly, happy -» happily, etc. When an adjective already ends in -ly (e.g. cowardly, elderly, friendly, kindly, lively, lonely, lovely) we don't add -ly to it to make an adverb. Instead we can use a prepositional phrase with fashion, manner, or way:
□ He smiled at me in a friendly way.      □ She waved her hands around in a lively fashion. Most participle adjectives ending in -ed (see Unit 69) don't have an adverb form and so we use a prepositional phrase instead:
□ They rose to greet me in a subdued manner, (not ...subduedly.)
□ He faced the court in a dignified fashion, (not ...dignifiedly.) or we use a preposition and a related noun if there is one:
□ She looked at me in amazement, (not ...amazedly.)
□ He was overwhelmed with confusion, (not ...confusedly.)
However, some do have an adverb form with -ly. Compare:
□ The storm was unexpected,   and   □ The weather turned unexpectedly stormy. Other adverbs like this include agitatedly, allegedly, deservedly, determinedly, disappointedly, excitedly, hurriedly, pointedly, repeatedly, reportedly, reputedly, supposedly, worriedly.
Some adverbs have two forms, one ending in -ly and the other not. We can sometimes use either of the two forms of the adverb without changing the meaning, although the form ending in -ly is grammatically correct and more usual in a formal style:
□ She ran quick/quickly towards the door, ('quick' is less formal) and must be used if the adverb comes immediately before the verb:
□ She quickly ran towards the door, (not She quick ran...)
Other words like this include cheap(ly), clean(ly), clear(ly), fine(ly), loud(ly), slow(ly), thin(ly).
In other cases there is a difference in the meaning of the adverb with and without -ly. Compare:
□ She gave her time free. (= for no money) and She gave her time freely. (= willingly)
□ I arrived late for the concert. (= not on time) and I haven't seen John lately. (= recently)
Here are some other pairs of adverbs that can have different meanings. Compare:
□ He wandered deep into the forest and got lost. (= a long way)	□ He felt deeply hurt by his criticisms. (= very) □ They loved each other deeply. (= very much)
□ 'You don't have to change trains.' 'You can go direct.' (= without stopping)	□ I'll be with you directly. (= very soon) □ He saw Susan directly ahead. (= straight)
□ It sounded awful - one of the choir members was singing flat.	□ This time I flatly refused to lend him any money. (= definitely; completely)
□ He kicked the ball high over the goal.	□ Everyone thinks highly of her teaching. (= they think her teaching is very good)
□ is Bob here yet?' 'He's just arrived.' □ She looks just like her mother.	□ You can be justly proud of your musical achievements. (= rightly; justifiably)
□ Which of these cheeses do you like most?	□ Her novels are now mostly out of print. (= most of them) □ We mostly go on holiday in France. (= usually)
□ They cut short their holiday when John fell ill. (= went home early)	□ The speaker will be arriving shortly (= soon). Please take your seats.
□ The door was wide open so I just went straight in. (= completely)	Cl You won't have any problems getting the book. It's widely available. (= in many places)
Exercises
Unit 71
71.1 Replace the underlined parts of these sentences using the participles below. If possible, use a -ly form. If it is not possible, use either a prepositional phrase or a preposition and a related noun. (A)
agitated        anticipated      despaired      determined disappointed organised      relaxed repeated       reputed satisfied
1 I warned him again and again of the dangers on the mountain, but he insisted on going ahead with the climb.
2 The class was completely out of control and the teacher put his hands to his head feeling that he could do nothing.
3 As his mother took the roast chicken out of the oven, Rod licked his lips because he was excited about what was going to happen.
4 St Enedoc's is said to be. although no-one knows for certain, the smallest church in the country.
5 'Still no news from Paul,' she said in a sad way.
6 He ran the company in a calm way and rarely let anything annoy him.
7 She shook her head as if she had made a firm decision.
8 When he had finished the painting, he stepped back and looked at it in a way that showed he was happy.
9 Vicky runs the office carefully and tidily, so I don't think we should change things now. 10 Caroline paced about in an anxious way as she waited to go into the interview.
71.2 Use the adverbs discussed in C to complete the sentences. Use the form with -ly in one of the pairs and the form without -ly in the other.
1 a  What she hated....................................was having to get up at 5.30 every morning.
b We don't go out much in the evening. We....................................watch television.
2 a The company paid compensation, but stopped....................................of admitting they were to
blame.
b The book is due to be published.....................................
3 a I'm not in my office at the moment, but if you leave your name and number I'll get back to
you.....................................{Message on a telephone answering machine/
b I used to have to change at Amsterdam to get to Moscow, but now I can fly.....................................
4 a  Even though I got very little sleep on the flight I felt....................................awake when I arrived in
Tokyo.
b French is....................................spoken in North Africa.
5 a She is one of the most....................................regarded researchers in the university.
b We could just see the plane flying....................................overhead.
71.3 Find the mistakes and correct them. If there are no mistakes, write /. (A-C)
1 The rise in car crime in the area is deeply worrying.
2 She waved friendlily to me.
3 Cut the onions up finely and fry them with garlic.
4 I asked the boys to move their bicycles off the football pitch but they flat refused.
5 1 couldn't understand what he was saying. He didn't speak very clearly.
6 He was accused of behaving cowardlily in the battle.
7 Pierre Evene manufactured the glass for which the town became just renowned.
8 I called Jim and he slow turned to face me.
9 Spread some butter on the bread as thin as possible.
10 The prime minister was loud applauded by her audience.
143
144
Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative forms
Comparatives: -er vs more/less...than
We usually add -er to one-syllable adjectives and adverbs to make their comparative form. However, we use more + adjective -& with one-syllable past participle adjectives (see Unit 69) such as bored, creased, pleased, worn:
□ After I'd ironed my shirt it looked more creased than before. («or ...creaseder...) it with fun, real, right and wrong:
□ I expected the film to be rather dull, but I couldn't have been more wrong, (not ...wronger.) ■& when we are comparing two qualities:
□ 'Don't you think Carl was brave to go bungee jumping?' 'Personally, I thought he was more mad than brave.'
□ Although the paint was called 'Sky blue', I thought it was more green than blue.
We can also use '...he wasn't so much brave as mad' and '...it was blue rather than green'.
We can sometimes use more as an alternative to the -er form to emphasise the comparison:
□ You might think it's dark here but it's more dark in the cellar, (or ...darker...) Other adjectives used like this include clear, cold, fair, rough, soft, true.
Some adjectives with two syllables are most commonly used with more/less, particularly participle adjectives (e.g. worried, boring); adjectives ending in -ful and -less (e.g. careful, careless); afraid, alert, alike, alone, ashamed, aware; and some other adjectives, including active, cautious, certain, complex, direct, eager, exact, formal, frequent, modern, special, recent. Most two-syllable adjectives ending -y, -ow, -er and -ure can take either an -er or the more + adjective form, although the -er form is more frequently used.
Some adjectives (such as complete, equal, favourite, ideal, perfect, unique) have a comparative or superlative meaning so they are not often used with -er/-est or more/less/most/least. However, we can use comparative or superlative forms for special emphasis or for a particular communicative purpose:
□ The weather today was good, but less perfect than yesterday.
Superlatives
We usually use the, a possessive form (with -'s), or a possessive pronoun before a superlative adjective or adverb. In informal contexts we sometimes leave out the before an -est or most + adjective superlative after a linking verb, particularly when the superlative is at the end of a sentence:
□ 'Why did you go by bus?' 'It was (the) cheapest.' □ Which was (the) most expensive? However, we can't leave out the when we go on to say what group of things is being compared:
□ 'Why did you buy these oranges?' 'They were the cheapest ones I could find.' (not They were cheapest ones...)
When most + adjective/adverb is used without the, most means something like 'very':
□ Did you see how she looked at you? It was most peculiar. (= very peculiar)
□ I checked the form most carefully (= very carefully) but didn't notice the mistake.
After a superlative we use of + a plural noun phrase to name the objects being compared:
□ John's the oldest of my three brothers.
Notice that we can put the of-phrase at the beginning to emphasise it:
□ Of my three brothers, John's the oldest.
When we give the location or context within which the comparison is made we usually use in + a singular noun phrase:
□ It was the tallest tree in the forest, (not ...the tallest tree of the forest.)
Grammar review: -» L7-L8
Exercises
Unit 72
72.1 Underline the correct or more likely alternative. If both are possible, notice the difference between them. (A)
1 It was almost as if the wolf was more scared/ scareder of us than we were of it.
2 The river was more deep/ deeper than I expected so I decided to turn back.
3 I think Fd describe her as more pretty/ prettier than beautiful.
4 He had always seemed unfriendly, but now they were alone he seemed even more cold/ colder.
5 I bought this tennis racket because it's more strong/ stronger.
6 As a politician I often receive threats, but some are more real/ realer than others.
7 There were two routes up the hill, but as we had lots of time we took the more long/ longer, more winding/ windinger one.
8 Sam isn't a bad boy really. He's more naughty! naughtier than dishonest.
9 Although a different speaker began to talk, I felt even more bored/ horeder than before.
10 The exam was more hard/ harder than 1 thought it would be.
11 We need to take responsibility for elderly neighbours, and in a cold winter like this it is more true/ truer than ever.
12 If the critics were wrong about Willis's first novel, they couldn't have been more right/ righter about her second.
72.2 Complete the sentences with an appropriate comparative adjective, using an -er or more + adjective form. Indicate where both forms are possible. (B)
alert clever      complex      dirty exciting pleasant
powerful      recent      useless        wealthy worried
1 I may not be much of a cook, but Brian is even.................................... in the kitchen than I am.
2 Most research in this area uses simple interviews, but we used a....................................methodology.
3 I didn't do well at school, and my fellow students all seemed....................................than me.
4 The film starts slowly, but gets....................................after the first half hour.
5 Neil is already rich, but his aim in life seems to be to become even.....................................
6 I was concerned when John didn't phone to say he'd be late, but I was even....................................
when he didn't come at all that night.
7 'This painting is from the 17,h century.' 'Really? It looks....................................than that.'
8 The walk was quite enjoyable, but if the sun had been shining it would have been
9 When I took the washing out of the machine it looked ....................................than when it went in.
10 For an extra $500 you could buy a much....................................motorbike.
11 Curiously, many people say they feel mentally....................................if they eat very little for a day.
72.3 Put brackets around the if it can be left out in these sentences. (C)
1 It was the sweetest orange I'd eaten for ages.
2 Ann and Clara were both excellent musicians, but Clara was the most creative.
3 He's the fastest runner in his class.
4 We get lots of birds in our garden, but blackbirds are the most common.
5 'Shall we go by train or car?' 'Well, going by bus is actually the easiest.'
72.4 Complete the sentences with in or of. (D)
1 The building is said to be the highest.................................... Europe.
2 The Democrats are the smallest....................................the four main political parties.
3 The hotel enjoys the most spectacular setting....................................any on the south coast.
4 For many people, it is the most important day....................................the whole year.
5 She's without doubt the best swimmer....................................my school.
145
Comparative phrases and clauses I
We use as + adjective/adverb + as to say that something or someone is like something or someone else, or that one situation is like another:
□ Was the film as funny as his last one? □ I came round as quickly as I could.
Negative forms of sentences like this can use either not as or not so. In formal speech and writing it is more common to use less + adjective + than:
□ The gap between the sides is not as/so wide as it was. (or ...is less wide than it was.)
If we put a singular countable noun between an adjective and the second as, we use a/an in front of the noun:
□ Despite his disability, he tried to lead as normal a life as possible, (not ...as normal life as...)
□ She was as patient a teacher as anyone could have had. (not ...as patient teacher as...)
The negative form of sentences like this can use either not as or sometimes not such:
□ It's not as quiet a place (or ...not such a quiet place ...) as it used to be.
Notice that we use not as + adjective + a/an + noun but not such a/an + adjective + noun.
We can use how, so and too followed by an adjective in a similar way:
□ How significant a role did he play in your life?
□ It's not quite so straightforward a problem as it might at first seem.
□ 'Conspiracy' is perhaps too strong a word.    u How big a piece do you want?
We also use as much/many as or as little/few as to say that a quantity or amount is larger or smaller than expected. Many and few are preferred before numbers; much and little are preferred with amounts (e.g. $5, 20%) and distances (e.g. 3 metres):
□ There are a small number of people involved, possibly as few as twenty.
□ Prices have increased by as much as 300 per cent.
We can use not + adjective/adverb + enough + to-infinitive to mean that there isn't as much as is necessary to do something:
□ I'm not tall enough to reach. □ He didn't speak loudly enough to be heard.
We can use sufficiently before adjectives to express a similar meaning to enough. Sufficiently is often preferred in more formal contexts:
□ She didn't play sufficiently well to qualify, (or ...well enough to qualify.)
We can use too + adjective/adverb + to-infinitive to mean 'more than necessary, possible, etc' to do something:
□ They arrived too late to get seats.        □ It moved too fast to see it clearly.
If we need to mention the things or people involved in the action, we do this with for...:
□ The suitcase was too small (for him) to get all his clothes in.
In rather formal English we can use too + adjective + a/an + noun:
□ I hope you haven't had too tiring a day. (not ...a too tiring day.)
(In a less formal style we might say 'I hope your day hasn't been too tiring.')
We can use so + adjective/adverb + that-clause to say that something existed or happened to such a degree that a specified result occurred (see also Unit 81):
□ It's so simple that even I can do it.      □ He came in so quietly that I didn't hear him.
Less often we use so + adjective/adverb + as + to-infinitive with a similar meaning. Compare:
□ The difference was so small that it wasn't worth arguing about, and
□ The difference was so small as to not be worth arguing about. (= Because the difference was so small, it wasn't worth arguing about)
We can use go so/as far as + to-infinitive to talk about actions that are surprising or extreme:
□ One furious woman went so/as far as to throw tomatoes at the minister.
Exercises
Unit 73
Complete these sentences with as...as or not as/sueh...as. Sometimes two answers are possible. Use the words in brackets and add any other necessary words. (B)
1 it's......not such a. poUute<t city now as/nofc as polluted    etfct}.„MW...ftw!.......it was 10 years
ago. («oi/ polluted/ city now)
2 The Downtown Hotel is...........................................................................................................Strand Hotel, (not/ pleasant/
place to stay)
3 The President's address to the nation is...........................................................................................................he is ever
likely to make in his career, (important/ speech)
4 It was...........................................................................................................I first thought, (not/ big/ problem)
5 Theresa's dog is...........................................................................................................I've ever seen, (ferocious/ animal)
6 She's...........................................................................................................she claims to be. (not/fluent/ Greek speaker)
Complete these sentences with as much as, as many as, as little as, or as few as. (C)
1 When it was really hot I was having....................................four showers a days.
2 The elephant population may soon fall to.................................... 1,000 from 5,000 10 years ago.
3 At the end of the 200-metre race there was....................................50 metres between the first and
second runners.
4 .................................... 5,000 people phoned in to complain about last night's TV programme.
5 Lit continuously, the life of a light bulb varies from....................................two weeks to three months.
6 Some days there were....................................three or four students at his lectures.
7 We don't use much electricity. Sometimes our bill is....................................£20 a month.
8 The country spends....................................25% of its income on defence.
Match the sentences to make ones using so + adjective + as + to-infinitive, as in 1. (F)
1 The noise from the factory was loud. a It was nearly illegible.
2 Her handwriting was untidy. b It was insignificant.
3 The bookcase was heavy. c It was unplayable.
4 The CD was badly scratched. d It prevented me sleeping.
5 The plot of the novel was complicated. e It was almost impossible to move it.
6 The difference between the results was small. f It was completely incomprehensible. 1+d.....The i?p^&jfrpm the- -factory, was w»e.„§.leej)l>,ig......
Here is part of an interview with the manager of a football team. His best player, Alan Green, has just suffered a serious injury. Correct any mistakes in the underlined text. (A-F) Interviewer: (1) How serious injury is it? Is it (2) so serious as has been claimed in the
newspapers? Some people are saying Alan Green will never play international
football again.
Manager: Well, it's certainly (3) enough bad to keep him out of football for at least 6
months. He's obviously (4) not so fit as he used to be and even he would admit that he's (5) not such good player as he was in his 20s. But I wouldn't (6) go so far to say that he'll never play for the national team again. I know him (7) sufficiently well enough to say that he will consider his future carefully before making any major decisions.
Interviewer: Well, we all wish him (8) as speedy recovery as possible...
Position of adverbs (1)
There are three main positions for adverbs which modify a verb: end, front and mid position. ■it In end position, the adverb is placed after the verb - either immediately after it or later in the clause:
□ They played quietly all day.    □ He tried to leave quietly.    □ He sat in the corner quietly. it In front position the adverb is placed before the subject:
□ Finally he could stand the noise no longer.     □ Sometimes / feel like going home.
-ft In mid position the adverb is placed between the subject and verb, immediately after be as a main verb, or after the first auxiliary verb:
□ He usually plays better than this. □ She is usually here by 10.00.
□ They would usually come by car.
Many adverbs can go in any of these positions, depending on context or style. For example:
□ He turned round slowly, (end) □ Slowly he turned round, (front)
□ He slowly turned round, (mid)
End position
In end position, we usually put an adverb after an object if there is one rather than immediately after the verb:
□ We considered the problem briefly, (not We considered briefly the problem.) However, if an object is very long other positions are possible:
□ We considered briefly the long-term solution to the problem, (or We briefly considered...)
We avoid putting an adverb between a main verb and a following -ing form or to-infinitive:
□ He began running quickly, or He quickly began running, (not He began quickly running.)
□ She tried to leave quietly, or She quietly tried to leave, (not She tried quietly to leave.) The position of the adverb can change the meaning of the sentence (see Unit 75A). Compare:
□ I recall telling him clearly that he had won. (= I told him clearly; 'clearly' modifies 'telling him') and
□ I clearly recall telling him that he had won. (= I clearly recall it; 'clearly' modifies 'recall'.)
i recall clearly telling him that he had won' is also possible, but is ambiguous; it can have either of the two meanings given above. In speech, the meaning intended is usually signalled by intonation.
When there is more than one adverbial (see Glossary) in end position, the usual order in written English is adverbial of manner (= saying how something is done), place, and then time:
□ In the accident she was thrown violently forwards. (= manner + place)
□ We arrived here on Saturday. (= place + time)
For special emphasis we can move an adverbial to the end:
□ In the accident she was thrown forwards, violently.
If one adverbial is much longer than another then it is usually placed last:
□ They left at 3.00 with a great deal of noise. (= time + manner)
An adverb usually comes before a prepositional phrase when these have the same function (i.e. when they both describe manner, or place, or time):
□ She went downstairs to the cellar. (= place + place)
End position is usual for many adverbials of place, definite frequency, and definite time (including adverbial prepositional phrases):
□ They live upstairs. («or They upstairs live.)    □ She goes weekly, (not She weekly goes.)
□ Have you heard the good news? Jane had a baby in May. (not Jane in May had a baby.) However, adverbs of indefinite time usually go in mid position (see Unit 75).
Notice that in journalism, other adverbs of time are often used in mid position, where we would normally place them in end (or front) position:
□ The government yesterday announced an increase in education spending.
Exercises
Unit 74
74.1 Write the adverb in brackets in the sentence in an appropriate position. In some cases both positions are possible. (C)
1 I ....................................expect Sue to win the race.....................................(easily)
2 He....................................regretted missing the concert.....................................(greatly)
3 I....................................hated playing the piano...................................., although my parents thought I loved it.
(secretly)
4 He....................................started to walk....................................across the bridge over the gorge, (calmly)
5 She....................................offered to do the work.....................................(kindly)
6 Ray....................................finished speaking....................................and sat down, (hurriedly)
7 I....................................don't remember putting it down.....................................(simply)
8 We....................................look forward to hearing from you.....................................(soon)
9 They....................................tried to ignore me.....................................(deliberately)
10 I don't....................................pretend to understand the instructions.....................................(completely)
74.2 Complete the sentences. Put the words and phrases in brackets in the most likely order for written English. (B a D)
1 He hid Nancy's „,ja^ffifr,JB ;Wfrflffi#$ttt..... (in the wardrobe/ present)
2 She waited...................................................... (nervously/ until her name was called)
3 The road climbed...................................................... (through the mountains/ steeply)
4 As a punishment, she had to be at school...................................................... (for the next two weeks/ early)
5 As I left, I locked...................................................... (the door/ securely)
6 We're travelling...................................................... (during the summer/ around Australia)
7 The house is by the river, just...................................................... (from the bridge/ downstream)
8 She was able to describe...................................................... (the exact details of the house where
she had lived as a baby/ accurately)
9 In hospital she had to lie...................................................... (with her right leg suspended in
mid air I for a week)
10 He swam......................................................and then got out of the pool. (rapidly/ for a few minutes)
11 If you leave now, you should be...................................................... (by nine o'clock/ at home)
12 They enjoyed...................................................... (at the party/ themselves/ immensely)
.3  If necessary, improve these sentences by putting the italicised word or phrase in a more appropriate position. If no improvement is needed, write /. (B-E)
1 I try to visit every week my parents......!....ky....to ..vjr5ii ..^ ......or
....£Yi^y..w.e^....!....ky^ ......
2 Next, beat the eggs vigorously in a small bowl.
3 I thought I'd locked securely the luggage.
4 I stopped regularly playing tennis after I broke my wrist.
5 Rafter was easily beaten in the final.
6 Sarah never eats in the canteen at work. She always brings from home sandwiches.
7 'Do the Simpson family still live next door?' 'No, they moved last year away.'
8 The local residents welcomed the decision to introduce a new bus service from their village into the nearby town warmly.
9 We have to hand the homework in on Tuesday.
149
Position of adverbs (2)
Front position
Most types of adverb commonly go in front position in a clause (see Unit 74A). In particular -■b connecting adverbs (e.g. as a result, similarly) which make immediately clear the logical relation to the previous sentence:
□ The value of the yen has fallen. As a result, Japan faces a crisis.
■ft time and place adverbs (e.g. tomorrow, nearby) which give more information about a previous reference to a time or place, or show a contrast:
□ The last few days have been hot. Tomorrow the weather will be much cooler.
■iz comment and viewpoint adverbs (e.g. presumably, financially) which highlight the speaker's attitude to what they are about to say (see Unit 78):
□ She has just heard that her sister is ill. Presumably, she will want to go home. However, other positions are possible for these adverbs.
Some words can be used both as comment adverbs or adverbs of manner. As comment adverbs they usually go in front position (but can go in other positions) and relate to the whole of the clause; as adverbs of manner they usually go in end position and modify the verb. Compare:
□ Naturally, I'll do all I can to help, and □ The gas occurs naturally in this area. Other adverbs like this include clearly, curiously, frankly, honestly, oddly, plainly, seriously.
Note that for special emphasis or focus, adverbs that usually go in mid position (see B) and end position (see also Units 74 and 76) can sometimes be put in front position:
□ In May, Jane had a baby. □ Regularly, Kim works on several paintings at once.
Mid position
The following types of adverb usually go in mid position (see Unit 74A) -•b degree adverbs (e.g. almost, hardly, nearly, quite, rather, scarcely):
□ The street lighting was so bad that we almost missed the turning.
although some (e.g. completely, enormously, entirely, greatly, slightly) can go in end position:
□ I greatly admire your work, (or I admire your work greatly.)
Notice, however, that some degree adverbs are not usually used in mid position with some verbs. For example, enormously is not usually used in mid position with develop, differ, go up or vary; greatly is not normally used in mid position with care or suffer.
ft adverbs which indicate the order of events, such as first, last and next. These can also go in end position, but if there is a phrase giving the time of an event they usually go before this:
□ I first met her in 1987. (or I met her first in 1987.)
We don't usually put these in front position, except when we use them to list actions (when we usually follow them with a comma in writing; see also Unit 76B):
□ Next, add three teaspoons of sugar.
•Cr adverbs of frequency which say in an indefinite way how often something happens, including hardly ever, often, rarely, regularly, seldom (see also Unit 76B); and also the frequency adverbs always and never:
□ We hard/y ever see Derek nowadays, he's so busy at the office.
Notice, however, that adverbial phrases of indefinite frequency (e.g. as a rule, on many occasions, from time to time, every so often) usually go in front or end position:
□ As a rule, 1 go every six months, (or every six months, as a rule; not 'I as a rule go...')
We rarely put long adverbials (including clauses (see Units 58 and 59), and prepositional and noun phrases) in mid position. Usually they go in end position or front position for emphasis:
□ She phoned home, anxious for news, (or Anxious for news, she phoned home.)
□ He picked up the vase with great care, (or With great care he picked up the vase.)
□ I'd seen Jack the day before, (or The day before I'd seen Jack.)
Exercises
Unit 75
75.1   Use one of these adverbs in each pair of sentences. In one, add the adverb in front position (as a comment adverb); in the other, add the adverb in end position (as an adverb of manner). (A) clearly     -curiously      frankly      honestly      plainly seriously
1 a .....&*.na*.s.Ui...., the house has three chimneys...................................., even though there are only two
fireplaces.
b ...................................., Esther looked at him.....S^S&^si....., trying to work out whether he was being
serious or not.
2 a ...................................., I was brought up to earn money...................................., not to steal it from others.
b ...................................., I'm perfectly capable of putting up the shelf myself.....................................
3 a ...................................., she admitted....................................that she felt she wasn't doing a good job.
b ....................................I went to sleep during his lecture...................................., it was so boring.
4 a 'Thanks for looking after the children for me.' 'That's okay.' '...................................., I don't know
what I'd have done....................................if you hadn't been around to help.'
b ...................................., I tried to speak....................................to him about his bad behaviour, but he kept
making me laugh.
5 a The chief executive of Eclom has phoned me every day this week to ask whether I've made my mind up....................................., he wants me to take the job.....................................
b ...................................., I'd had very little sleep the night before and was having difficulty thinking
6 a Robert fidgeted in his seat and kept looking nervously at the door....................................., he was
feeling ill at ease.....................................
b ....................................she always dressed....................................at work in a white blouse and grey skirt.
75.2 Cross out any adverbs or adverbials that are incorrect or unlikely in these sentences. (B ft Unit 74E)
1 Asthma rates in cities do not enormously/ significantly differ from those in rural areas.
2 Now that Megan has moved to Liverpool, I from time to time/ rarely see her.
3 I could see them easily/ scarcely in the bright sunshine.
4 It was snowing and I was almost/ by an hour late for the interview.
5 I met Mick at a party and then saw him a couple of days later next/ at the bus stop on College Road.
6 Carmen had often/ on many occasions spoken at meetings before so it was no surprise when she stood up.
7 I play chess with Tim hardly ever/ every week.
8 Although he had to lift heavy boxes in the factory, he greatly/ rarely suffered from backache.
9 I forgot about the meeting nearly/ entirely and my boss was really angry with me.
75.3 Which of the positions indicated [1], [2] or [3] can the adverb or adverbial in brackets go in? (A-C)
1 He '2' moved to New Zealand     (the following year)
2 111 The children 121 walked along the road ™. (in single file)
3 111 We 121 see Tom    any more, (seldom)
4 "lHe|2|compl ained to his physics teacher ' ' . (unhappy with the result)
5 ''' I !2' agree with you (entirely)
6 1111 '2| meet131 Emma at school, (often)
Adverbs of place, direction, indefinite frequency, and time
Adverbs of place and direction (or adverbials, particularly prepositional phrases) usually go in end position, but we can put them in front position to emphasise the location. The effect may also be to highlight what comes at the end (e.g. 'a body' in the example below). This order is found mainly in formal descriptive writing and reports. Compare:
□ The money was eventually found under the floorboards. (= end) and
□ The police searched the house. Under the floorboards they found a body. (= front)
If we put an adverb of place in front position we put the subject after the verb be (see also Unit 99A):
□ Next to the bookshelf was a fireplace, (or less formally Next to the bookshelf there was a fireplace; not Next to the bookshelf a fireplace was.)
Note that this doesn't apply when the subject is a pronoun. For example, we can't say 'Next to the bookshelf was it.'
We can also put the subject after the verb with intransitive verbs (except with a pronoun subject) used to indicate being in a position or movement to a position, including hang, lie, live, sit, stand; come, fly, go, march, roll, run, swim, walk:
□ Beyond the houses lay open fields, (but compare Beyond the houses they lay.)
□ Through the town marched the band, (but compare Through the town it marched.) Note that '...open fields lay', '...the band marched' (etc.) might be used in a literary style.
However, we don't usually put the subject after the verb when we talk about actions: if one of these intransitive verbs is followed by an adverb of manner; with other intransitive verbs; or with transitive verbs:
□ Through the waves the boy swam powerfully, (rather than ...swam the boy powerfully.)
□ Outside the church the choir sang, (rather than ...sang the choir.)
□ In the garden John built a play house for the children, (not In the garden built John...)
When we put certain adverbs of time in front position the subject must come after an auxiliary verb or a main verb be (see also Unit 100):
□ At no time would he admit that his team played badly, (not At no time he would admit...)
□ Not once was she at home when I phoned, (not Not once she was...)
If the main verb is not be and there is no auxiliary, we use do, although inversion is not necessary in this case:
□ Only later did she realise how much damage had been caused, (or Only later she realised...)
Adverbs like this include negative time adverbials such as at no time, hardly ever, not once, only later, rarely, and seldom. Notice also that we can put first, next, now and then in front position with the verb come to introduce a new event, when the subject follows the verb. But if a comma (or an intonation break in speech) is used after first (etc.) the verb follows the subject. Compare:
□ At first there was silence. Then came a voice that I knew, (not Then a voice came...) and
□ At first there was silence. Then, a voice came that I knew.
Adverbs of time which indicate a definite point or period in time or a definite frequency, usually go in end position, or front position for emphasis, but not in mid position. Note that when these adverbs are in front position there is no inversion of subject and verb:
□ I went to Paris yesterday, (or Yesterday I went to Paris.)
□ We meet for lunch once a week, (or Once a week we meet for lunch.)
Note that the adverbs daily, hourly, monthly, weekly, annually, quarterly (= four times a year), etc. only go in end position:
□ The train leaves hourly. («or Hourly the train leaves; not The train hourly leaves.)
□ I pay my subscription annually, (not Annually I pay...; not I annually pay...)
Exercises
Unit 76
76.1 Rewrite the sentences with the underlined adverbs of place or direction at the front of the clause. If possible, invert the order of subject and verb. (A)
1 A dark wood was at the bottom of the garden.
.....At. thfe, bottom Of the garden was a, daife woocL
2 The car stopped suddenly and Nick jumped out.
3 Two small children stood outside the door.
4 The boys were playing cricket in the park, despite the muddy conditions.
5 The choir was singing one of my favourite carols inside the church.
6 A jade necklace hung around her neck.
7 The horse ran down the hill quickly.
8 The man released the monkey and it climbed up the tree.
9 The door burst open and a delegation from the striking workers marched in.
10 I tripped over the cat, dropped the tray, and it flew across the room.
11 While Nigel was looking around for his net the fish swam away.
12 Most of the furniture was modern, but a very old grandfather clock was in the corner.
13 She drove around the town for hours looking for the gallery, until she spotted the place in a side street.
14 Megan watched sadly through the window.
15 Ann found it difficult to concentrate in the office, but she worked more efficiently at home.
16 They saw a volcano erupting in Japan, and they experienced an earthquake in Indonesia.
17 A 16lh century church is on one side of the village green and a 15,h century pub stands opposite.
76.2 If possible, rewrite the underlined parts of these sentences with the time adverbial in front position. Where you can, invert the order of subject and verb, and make any other necessary changes. (B a C)
1 I trusted Dan completely, and I realised only later that he had tricked me.
.....L.frws<^...D^
2 After working so hard all summer, I had a holiday last week.
3 Professor Coulson was to give the initial paper at the conference, but a welcoming address came first by the head of the organising team.
4 The area was cleared before the explosion, and members of the public were in danger at no time.
5 I've got high blood pressure and 1 have to take tablets daily for it.
6 When it became clear that he was in danger of losing the election, a politician can seldom have changed his views so quickly as Beckett.
7 After a few days of relative calm, a blizzard came next, preventing us from leaving the hut.
8 It's hard to imagine that we'll be in Japan by next Friday.
9 You won't have long to wait as trains for Rome leave hourly.
10 My grandfather was a gentle man, and I hardly ever heard him raise his voice in anger.
11 1 walk to work for the exercise, and I play squash twice a week.
12 If you take the job, your salary will be paid quarterly into your bank account.
Degree adverbs and focus adverbs
Degree adverbs can be used before adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs to give information about the extent or level of something:
□ They're extremely happy.      □ I really hate coffee.     □ He almost always arrived late. Some degree adverbs, such as almost, largely, really and virtually, are usually used before the main verb, and others, such as altogether, enormously, somewhat, and tremendously, are usually used after the main verb. Degree adverbs are rarely used in front position (see Unit 75B).
Focus adverbs draw attention to the most important part of what we are talking about. Some (e.g. especially, even, mainly, mostly, particularly, specifically) make what we say more specific:
□ There is likely to be snow today, particularly in the north.
and others (e.g. alone, just, only, simply, solely) limit what we say to one thing or person:
□ Many people offered to help me invest the money, but I only trusted Peter.
Much and very much
In affirmative sentences in formal contexts, much can be used as a degree adverb before the verbs admire, appreciate, enjoy, prefer and regret to emphasise how we feel about things:
□ I much enjoyed having you stay with us.       □ Their music is much admired.
Much is used in this way particularly after I and we and (with admire and appreciate) in passives. Note that we don't usually use this pattern in questions (e.g. not 'Did you much enjoy...?').
We can use very much in a similar way before these verbs and also before agree, doubt, fear, hope, like and want. Notice, however, that we don't use much before this last group of verbs. Compare:
□ I much prefer seeing films at the cinema than on television, (or I very much prefer...) and
□ We very much agree with the decision, (or We agree very much...; but not ...much agree...)
We can also use much or very much before a past participle which is part of a passive:
□ The new by-pass was (very) much needed.
We don't use much but can use very much before past participle adjectives (see Unit 69A):
□ She was (very) interested in the news, (or ... very much interested...; but not much interested...)
and we don't use either much or very much before present participle adjectives:
□ The hotel was (very) welcoming, (but not The hotel was (very) much welcoming.)
In negative sentences in informal contexts we can use (very) much before verbs such as appreciate, enjoy, like, and look forward to to emphasise a negative feeling about something:
□ I didn't (very) much enjoy the film.
Very and too
Before an adjective or another adverb we use very when we mean 'to a high degree', and too when we mean 'more than enough' or 'more than is wanted or needed'. Compare:
□ The weather was very hot in Majorca. Perfect for swimming, (wo*...too hot...) and
□ It's too hot to stay in this room - let's find somewhere cooler, (not ...very hot...)
In negative sentences in informal spoken English we can use not too to mean 'not very':
□ I'm not too bothered about who wins, (or I'm not very bothered...)
Even, only and alone
Even and only usually go in mid position (see Unit 75), but if they refer to the subject they usually come before it. Compare:
□ My mother has only brought some food. (= She hasn't brought anything else) and
□ Only my mother has brought some food. (= My mother and nobody else)
□ Sue can even speak French. (= in addition to everything else she can do) and
□ Even Sue can speak French. (= you might not expect her to) (rather than Sue even...)
When alone means that only one thing or person is involved, it comes after a noun:
□ You alone should decide what is right for you.
Exercises
Unit 77
77.1 Which of these can go in the spaces: very, much, very much? (B)
1 We....................................hope that the striking workers will now resume negotiations.
2 Thanks for organising the refreshments on school sports day. Your help was....................................
appreciated.
3 I felt....................................intimidated by some of the questions in the interview.
4 I had always....................................admired her work, and it was a great experience to meet her
personally.
5 There was a time when 1 ....................................wanted a lot of children, but I'm perfectly happy now
with the one child we have.
6 I would....................................prefer to be remembered as someone who was kind rather than just as
someone who was wealthy.
7 It was....................................thrilling to get Eva's news.
8 When I was travelling in India I became....................................interested in regional foods.
9 Jack says that he wants to go into politics, but I....................................doubt that he's serious.
10 I....................................regret not being able to hear Dr Jackson speak when she came to the
university.
77.2 Write very, too, or very/too if either is possible. (C)
1 The old bridge in town was....................................narrow for the coach to drive across, so we had to
go an extra 50 miles to the new one.
2 Kay has agreed to start work earlier, but she's not....................................enthusiastic about it.
3 The instructions are....................................easy. You'll have no trouble understanding them.
4 It was....................................alarming to learn that one of the plane's engines had stopped.
5 We'll be at the cinema well before the film starts. It won't take....................................long to get there.
6 It was snowing....................................heavily for us to climb further up the mountain.
7 He revised....................................hard and did well in his exams.
8 Joanna was in a wheelchair as she was still....................................weak from her operation to walk
far.
77.3 Put even, only or alone in the most appropriate place in each sentence. (D)
1 Mark offered to let me stay with him while I was in Glasgow, and....................................he
....................................offered to pick me up from the station.
2 ....................................I will....................................be in my office on Monday next week as I'm going to
Poland for a business meeting on Tuesday.
3 You are unlikely to buy the car you really need if you choose one on the basis of....................................
price.....................................
4 Every penny the charity raises helps the homeless, and.................................... the smallest donation
....................................can make a vital difference.
5 Ron seems to have invited everyone to the party.....................................he has....................................asked
Claire, and they haven't spoken to each other for years.
6 ....................................John....................................knew where the keys were kept, and nobody else.
7 ....................................advertising....................................won't persuade people to buy. You need to have a
quality product.
8 The theme park is really expensive.....................................admission....................................costs £25 and then
you have to pay £5 for each of the rides.
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Comment adverbs and viewpoint adverbs
We use some adverbs to make a comment on what we are saying.
some comment adverbs...	example
indicate how likely we think something is	apparently, certainly, clearly, definitely, obviously, presumably, probably, undoubtedly
indicate our attitude to or opinion of what is said	astonishingly, frankly, generally, honestly, interestingly, luckily, naturally, sadly, seriously, surprisingly, unbelievably
show our judgement of someone's actions	bravely, carelessly, foolishly, generously, kindly, rightly, stupidly, wisely, wrongly
Comment adverbs often apply to the whole sentence and are most frequently used in front position (see Unit 75A), although they can also be used at the end of the sentence and in other positions. At the beginning and end of sentences we usually separate them from the rest of the sentence by a comma in writing or by intonation in speech:
□ Presumably, he didn't hear me when I called.
□ The book was based on his experience in China, apparently.
□ Jackson believes that child development can be slowed down by poor nutrition. This is undoubtedly the case.
Comment adverbs which show judgement usually follow the subject, although they can be put in front position for emphasis:
□ He kindly offered to take me to the station, (or Kindly, he offered... to emphasise 'Kindly')
If comment adverbs apply to only part of the sentence they can be used in other positions. Compare:
□ Astonishingly, she did well in the exam. (= I was surprised that she did well)
□ She did astonishingly well in the exam. (= she did very well)
□ You've had a major operation. Obviously, it will be very painful for a while. (= I expect you to know this already)
□ When he stood up it was obviously very painful. (= the pain was clear to see)
Some adverbs are used to make clear what viewpoint we are speaking from; that is, identifying what features of something are being talked about:
□ Financially, the accident has been a disaster for the owners of the tunnel.
□ The brothers may be alike physically, but they have very different personalities. Other examples include biologically, environmentally, financially, ideologically, industrially, logically, medically, morally, outwardly, politically, technically, visually.
A number of phrases are used in a similar way. For example:
politically speaking in political terms      in terms of politics
from a political point of view      as far as politics are concerned
□ Politically/In political terms, this summer is a crucial time for the government.
□ Financially/From a financial point of view, it is a good investment.
Some adverbs or phrases are used to say whose viewpoint we are expressing:
□ The head of National North Bank is to receive, according to newspaper reports, a 50% salary increase.
□ In my view, the Foreign Minister should resign immediately.
Other examples include to my/his/her (etc.) knowledge, from my/his/her (etc.) perspective, personally, in my/his/her (etc.) opinion.
Exercises
Unit 78
78.1 Choose a comment adverb to replace the underlined part. Consider possible positions in the sentence for the adverb. (A)
astonishingly      bravely         carelessly generously interestingly       obviously      presumably rightly
1 It was very surprising indeed that no paintings were destroyed by the fire in the gallery.
...Aston.i£h.w^
2 As you drive off the ferry, there are lots of different flags flying by the side of the road. It seems likely that the idea is to welcome visitors from other countries.
3 Acting more kindly than they needed to. the builders agreed to plant new trees to replace the ones they had dug up.
4 Most people believe in a correct way that the prisoners should be released.
5 It was easy to see that she knew more about the robbery than she told the police.
6 He broke the window when he was painting because he wasn't paying attention to what he was doing.
7 She picked up the spider and put it outside, showing no fear.
8 I found it strange that this was the only map I could find that includes the village of Atherstone.
78.2 Complete the sentences with an appropriate viewpoint adverb from (i) and an ending from (ii). (B)
environmentally	financially
industrially	medically
outwardly	politically
technically	visually
...we'd be much better off if we moved there.
...the performance was stunning.
...it is relatively undeveloped.
...she looked remarkably calm.
...she could be sent to prison.
■ ■■the doctors can't find anything wrong.
...it is no longer the problem it once was.
...he claims to be a socialist.
1 Sam says that he is still getting severe headaches, although...
2 As she stepped onto the stage she felt terrified, but...
3 Now that lead is no longer added to most petrol,...
4 The country earns most of its income from agriculture and...
5 The band didn't play terribly well, and the singing was awful, but...
6 The cost of living is much lower in Northumberland, so...
7 Edwards is one of the richest men in the country, although...
8 Val is likely to be fined for failing to pay her gas bill, although...
78.3 Suggest an appropriate noun, adjective or adverb and one of the phrases in the box in B to compfete these sentences. Use a different phrase each time. You coufd use the foffowing words (or adjectives or adverbs formed from them) or suggest your own. architecture      democracy      geology      grammar history
1 .....Hfetonc^.SE«u^|....., m what ways has disease affected the development of Western
civilisation?
2 ....................................limestone is a relatively new rock.
3 The building is similar to the opera house in Milan.....................................
4 ....................................the essay was well written, but its style was inappropriate.
5 The election was clearly rigged and the result is a severe blow to the country.....................................
157