Lesson 7    The complex sentence

                                     

A COMPLEX sentence consists of only one main/matrix clause and one or more subordinate/dependent clauses functioning as an element of the sentence.

Unlike a SIMPLE sentence, in which all sentence elements are expressed by phrases, a complex sentence comprises at least one sentence element expressed by a clause.

Compare: He came here yesterday. = simple sentence

X He came here after he finished all his work. = complex sentence

 

Unlike a COMPOUND sentence, which comprises at least two matrix clauses (and any number of subordinate clauses), a complex sentence consists of only one matrix clause and any number of subordinate clauses (at least one).

Example of complex sentence: I’ll give you some money if you help me.

The main/matrix clause is superordinate to the subordinate if clause. The matrix clause is the superordinate clause minus its subordinate clause.

 

Subordination x coordination

Example: He came here to help me. = subordination X He came here and helped me. = coordination

Note: A subordinate clause may function as a constituent of a phrase, e.g. a relative clause as a postmodifier in a noun phrase. The result is not a complex sentence, since the subordinate clause does not function as a constituent of the sentence.

Example: The boy we met yesterday is my best friend’s son. = simple sentence

 

Three main structural classes of clauses:

1. finite clause (with a finite VP): I’ll come as soon as I finish my work.

2. nonfinite clause (with a nonfinite VP): I’ll come after finishing my work.

3. verbless clause (with no VP): I’ll come as soon as possible.

 

Nonfinite clauses

- there are 4 structural subclasses of nonfinite verb clauses:

1) to- infinitive:

a) without subject: The best thing would be to go there tomorrow.

b) with subject: The best thing would be for you to go there tomorrow.

 

2) bare infinitive:

a) without subject: All she did was grab his arm to stop him from running into the road.

b) with subject: Rather than you do the job, I’d prefer to finish it myself.

 

3) –ing participle:

a) without subject: Leaving the room, Catherine tripped over the mat.

b) with subject: Her mother having left the room, I asked Mary for some personal help.

 

4) –ed participle:

a) without subject: Made here to read novels by Charles Dickens, I have managed to avoid him since.

b) with subject: The discussion completed, the chairman adjourned the meeting for an hour.

 

Subclasses 1) and 3) are used with the highest frequency, especially 3) without subject; subclass 2) is relatively rare.

Nonfinite clauses (lacking tense markers and modal auxiliaries, and frequently also a subject and a subordinating conjunction) are a valuable means of syntactic compression, used especially in written language.

 

Verbless clauses

With verbless clauses it is usually possible to postulate a missing form of the verb be and to recover the subject, when omitted, from the context:

Whether right or wrong, she always comes off worst in argument.

= ‘whether she is right or wrong’

One should avoid taking a trip abroad in July where possible.

= ‘where it is possible’

If obtainable in your country, money belts are a good idea.

 = ‘if they are obtainable in your country’

You’ll feel safer with your money in a money belt.

= ‘if your money is in a money belt’

- the subject in a verbless clauses is often introduced by with or without:

With the children at school, we can’t take our vacations when we want to.

Without you at my side, I am not willing to answer questions.

 

Formal indicators of subordination

- subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinating clause:

1. subordinators (subordinating conjunctions)

a) single-word subordinators (e.g. before, after, because, although, as, since, for, if, though, lest, till, once, that, until, unless, when, where, whenever, whereas, while)

b) multiword subordinators (e.g. (a) ending with that: in order that, in the event that; (b) ending with as: as far as, as soon as, as long as; others: as if/though, in case)

c) correlative subordinators, combining two markers of subordination (e.g. so/that … that, the … the, whether/if … or, as … so, less/more (/-er) … than, if … then, even if … yet, although … nevertheless, because … therefore)

2. marginal subordinators (three types of borderline cases)

a) a subordinator and a following/preceding adverb: e.g. even if, if only;

b) temporal noun phrases: e.g. the moment (that), every time (that);

c) prepositional phrases: e.g. because of the fact that, in spite of the fact that;

3. other indicators of subordination

a) wh-elements in subordinate interrogative clauses and subordinate exclamative clauses, wh-elements in wh-relative clauses, and in conditional-concesive clauses;

b) the relative pronoun that in restrictive relative clauses;

c) subject-operator inversion, especially in conditional clauses, typically in literary or elevated style; operators permitting inversion being had, were, should, sometimes could and might, e.g. Were she here, she would help us.

d) the absence of a finite verb since nonfinite and verbless clauses are generally subordinate;

 

There are three types of subordinate clauses that have no clear indicator of subordination:

1. nominal that-clauses, e.g. I suppose (that) he can use your phone.

2. zero relative clauses, e.g. I’ve lost the book (that) you sent me.

3. comment clauses have no overt marker of subordination, but they lack an obligatory complementation of the verb, e.g. He has no money, I suppose.

 

The verb phrase in subordinate clauses

The present tense in adverbial and nominal clauses

- the simple present is commonly used in preference to the auxiliary will (or shall) in certain types of adverbial clauses to express future meaning:

When she arrives, we’ll go to the cinema.

Even if it rains tomorrow, we will still go on the trip to Prague.

While I am away, the kids will look after the house.

Whatever they say, I won’t join them.

- the subordinators mainly belong to the temporal, conditional, and conditional-concessive categories

 

!!! Nominal that- and wh- clauses tend to contain the simple present when the matrix clause (as well as the subordinate clause) refers to the future; however, when the matrix clause refers to the present, will is likely to be used in the subordinate clause:

In a couple of minutes I’ll ask her what she wants tomorrow.

X

The question is what she will want tomorrow.

 

Nevertheless, there are exceptional verb constructions like hope, bet, see (to it), take care, be careful, and (both in the imperative) assume and suppose, after which the simple present is often or (for take care and be careful) regularly used:

I hope that she comes in time. (but also will come)

Suppose she gets lost. (but also will get)

Take care that she doesn’t fall. – here only the simple present is possible 

 

!!! will & won’t in if- clauses !!!

- will and won’t may occur in adverbial clauses, particularly in if- clauses, in certain uses:

 a) with a volitional meaning:

If you’ll help us, we can finish early. = if you are willing to…

If you won’t help us, all our plans will be ruined. = if you refuse to...

b) when expressing timeless and habitual prediction:

 If drugs will cure him, this drug should do the job.

If sugar will dissolve in a hot liquid, this chemical will do so too.

c) when expressing the present predictability of the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a future event:

If you won’t arrive before seven, I can’t meet you. = if you won’t be arriving …

If the game won’t be finished until nine, I’ll spend the night at your place. = if the game is not going to be finished …

- the matrix clause conveys the consequence of the present predictability; in both sentences above     the consequence is a present decision on a future action

 

Direct and indirect speech

Direct speech tries to present the exact words that someone utters / has uttered in speech or writing. Indirect speech, on the other hand, conveys a report of what has been said or written, but does so in the words of a subsequent reporter:

David said to me after the meeting, “In my opinion, the arguments in favour of radical changes in the curriculum are not convincing.”

David said to me after the meeting that in his opinion the arguments in favour of radical changes in the curriculum were not convincing.

David told me after the meeting that he remained opposed to any major changes in the curriculum.

Direct speech is usually signalled by being enclosed in quotation marks. The reporting clause may occur before, within, or after the direct speech:

(John said) “I wonder,” (John said / he said / said John), “whether I can borrow your car.” When the reporting clause is placed medially or finally, subject - verb inversion may occur if the verb (esp. say) is in the simple present or simple past. Inversion is most common when the verb is said, the subject is not a pronoun, and the reporting clause is medial.

 

Backshift in indirect speech

the sequence of tenses - the resulting relationship of verb forms in the reporting and reported clauses (see the example about David above);

- the sequence of tenses is optional when the time-reference of the original utterance is valid at the time of reporting: I didn’t know that our meeting is next Tuesday.

The reference to persons, time, and place in indirect speech must be appropriate to the situation at the time of reporting. (now - then, here - there, yesterday - last Tuesday)

All the main discourse types can be converted into indirect speech:

1. indirect statements (subordinate that-clauses), examples are above

2. indirect questions (subordinate wh-clauses or if-clauses)

e.g.      John asked whether I was ready yet. (yes/no question)

            I wondered when the plane would leave. (wh-question)

            I asked whether or not she was satisfied. (alternative question)

3. indirect exclamations (subordinate wh-clauses)

            “What a brave boy you are!” Margaret told him.

            Margaret told him what a brave boy he was.

4. indirect directives (subordinate that-clauses or to-infinitive clauses)

            “Tidy up the room at once,” I said to Tom.

            I insisted that Tom tidy/should tidy up the room at once. (mandative subjunctive or putative should); I told Tom to tidy up the room. (to-infinitive)

 

Free indirect speech

- used to report the stream of thought, especially in fiction.

- it is basically a form of indirect speech, but:

(1) the reported clause is usually omitted;

(2) the potentialities of direct-speech sentence structure are retained (the presence of  e.g. vocatives, tag questions, interjections, direct questions and exclamations);

(3) only the backshift of the verb, together with the equivalent shifts in personal pronouns, demonstratives, and time and space references, signals the fact that the words are being reported, rather than being in direct speech;

e.g. So that was their plan, was it? He well knew their tricks, and would show them a thing or two before he was finished. Thank goodness he had been alerted, and that there were still a few honest people in the world!

 

Free direct speech

- used in fiction to represent a person’s stream of thought

- it is basically a form of direct speech, but it is merged with the narration without any overt indication by a reporting clause of a switch to speech. It is distinguished from the past time-reference of the narration by its use of unshifted forms.

e.g. I sat on the grass staring at the passers-by. Everybody seemed in a hurry. Why didn’t I stay at home?

 

Transferred negation

- common in informal style

= the transfer of the negative from a subordinate clause (where semantically it belongs) to the matrix clause:

I think it isn’t a good idea. => I don’t think it is a good idea.

I believe I haven’t met him before. => I don’t believe I’ve met him before.

- the matrix verbs that permit transferred negation convey notions of opinion (such as believe, expect, imagine, suppose, think) or perception (e.g. appear, seem, feel as if, look as if, sound as if):

He expected not to win. => He didn’t expect to win.

It seems that we can’t go there today. => It doesn’t seem that we can go there today.

It looks as if it isn’t going to rain. => It doesn’t look if it’s going to rain.

 

Note: When the subject of the main clause is I, the tag question corresponds with the subject in the subordinate clause: I don’t imagine he cares, does he? (I imagine he doesn’t care, does he?)

References:

Greenbaum, S., & Quirk, R. (1990) A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, pp. 283-303.

Chalker, S. (1992) A Student’s English Grammar Workbook. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, exercises 129 – 135; 140.