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The ecological perspective
The ecological model
The erological^or social ecological model looks upon an institution as a systemor organisation g^gd^ within a specific context. Kurt Lewin (1935) maintained that events could'not be considered in isolation from their context. Behaviour js_ajhanc_tjon of person^rjvjron^ Explanations of the functioning of a system or
organisation are concerned with the functions of the system as a whole and its subsystems. Systems are enyjgaged as multi-level and multi-factorial, that is there are different levelsofan^ly^^iLdifferenLfactors-to be considered when describing any given system. Institutions are perceived as having a number of functions that can be evaluated.
Environmental perceptions and subjective responses play a significant role in this model. Identical systems and environments can be perceived differently depending on attitudes and expectations. People evaluate environments differently depending on their perceptions and feelings.
_The school can be analysed as a system with component subsystems. It can also be looked upon as a_multi-level system: the classroom, the pastoral system, the management system and the school as a whole. The school system is also multi-factorial^in that many factors influence theschool system and subsystems. Particular emphasis is placed on the sociaLnetworks and physical/spatial environmgiiLinJhe school. The ethjjsjgi^social climate of the school is seerTaVh^aving an independent influence on the school as a system.
Behaviour is seen holistically, i.e. as being influenced by the social and physical .environmenL Individual behaviour is seen as embedded in a specific social and physical context, jpersohal spacej (Katz, 1937) is another ecological concept that describes people's attitudes towards the^pj^esiinoujidin^ Problem behaviours can arise when others are perceived as intruding into or ir^adjmjjhose spaces. Problem behaviour is influenced or even generated by ecological factors in specific contexts. The management struc^un^thej^aj^ act. syjr^rgisJka_Uy_toinflu^
Beyond the school context other systems can be considered as influencing the problem behaviour. Bronfenbrenner's (1992) ecological systems model represents embedded systems that have a reciprocal influence on each other. There are microsystems Jbat comprise roles andxelMionships (e.g.jgeer grou^s^rr^esos^tems__ (e.g. schools' relationships with parents^j^o^stgins
other parents) and macrosystems which comprise all types of_systems within a
The ecological perspective
cultural context. Systeir^Tnfluence problem"T?ehaviour and problem behaviour influences systems.
The ecological approach to behaviour
The ecological approach looks at the physical-spatial and social environments and their influence on behaviour.
TheIpaHalegy^nm^irefers, for example, to the amount of space, spatial density, locationZlKtll^el o£ cro^vdjng_j?xj^rien^ open plan buildings.
Locations are seen as having particular significance, i.e. the influence of particular ~people~and objects in the immediate surroundings of students (the inolar ecological environment, Barker, 1968). Students' perce^t^s^fJh^jise-c^^A^^n^lhe^u^e of s_pace_b_y_other.s are considered to be significant in influencing behaviour. The physical and biological environment refers to such factors as terr^eraJm^,Jighl^_d_noise. All these factors are seen as possible influences on behaviour in the school as a whole and in classrooms.__
The|ol^alusaliol\aT~e^ to factors such as school and class size,
school^structure, school ethos and_cks^ropjn__eivvironm
teachers and students and between students also influence behaviour in classrooms and the school as a whole. Moos's (1979) social-ecological approach__iocuses on pej^n^nvironment interactions and theirreciprocal influences. These mteractions arejtnedlaleaThrough_s^lection, cognitive appraisal, motivaflmi^c^ar^tionand coping. Through the influence of these factors students may experience al^ejjajip^v, low~self-esteem and academic failure. ,—
Evaluation of the ecological perspective
The ecological perspective focuses on the influence of systems and subsystems on behaviour. It also emphasises the influence of the physical, spatial and social environments on behaviour. Problem behaviour is not seen in isolation from systems or the environment. Systemic factors have effects on groups as well as individuals. Problem behaviour is in^yhabjy^ contextual, varying across different contexts and also between different systems. Problem behaviours may arise in some subjects, with some teachers but not others. Personal variables are seen as interacting reciprocally with environmental variables in producing and influencing problem behaviour, gcol^icaljnjten^ej^^ regards both^jn^xjr^b^iinked;
Ecological assessment
Primarily, ecological assessment focuses on whole-school management of learning and behaviour, on the school ethos, on teacher expectations, on perceptions of the classroom environment and on student evaluations of their school and peer relationships.
Whole-school behaviour management needs to be expressed in the form of a whole-school behaviour policy. A behaviour policy should start from a baseline assessment of the incidence and prevalence of different types of behaviour in the school as a whole, i.e. in public spaces as well as classrooms.
Teacher and student perceptions and expectations of the school and classroom environment can be collected and collated through self-report surveys to provide a
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Perspectives on Behaviour
baseline. Teacher-student and student-student interactions can be assessed through student shadowing exercises across different contexts, on different days and at different times. Variations in behaviour may become apparent and indicate the influence of social and environmental factors, e.g. the effects of streaming, teaching styles, teaching pedagogy, seating and grouping arrangements on behaviour. ^ Moos's Classroom Environment Scalelists a number of factors to be considered when assessing a classroom environmentTeTg. the level of student involvement, the level of affiliation with other students and classroom rules. Lee et al. (1983) include other factors, e.g. pa^^pationinde^
jus^a^^af^iwironments. In some c&sesjmee^fisures may be used, e.g^accretion measures of the amount of graffiti and^litter in a given area. These measures can Be used to provide some indication of students' attitudes towards school.
Ecological formulation
An ecological formulation sees behaviour as being influenced by different types of systemic or environmental factors, i.e. physical, spatial, social and organisational factors operating in a specific context.
Problem behaviour is seen primarily as the result of person-environment interaction. PersonaLjvariables_J^g,_temperament and a cognitive deficit) interact with enviroimientaljrariables (e.g. seating arrangements) in a specific_context (a French lesson) to produceproblem JTehaviour. For example a student with a quick temper and reading difficulties, sitting next to a similar student in French, starts a fight over seats.
An ecological formulation therefore considers a range of ecological or systemic factors and describes how they could be influencing the problem behaviour, but also how the problem behaviour could be influencing systems.
Ecological intervention
Ecological interventions aim at bringing about positive changes in specific systems that will enable- r^-gative_behaviours Jo^b^_r^pJaced_Jby_jpositive behaviours. The following types of interventions may be tried depending on the problem behaviour:
\J* changing peer group dynajTjjcs_through seating and group plans^or through changes in classes pr forms;
• restructuring forms or classes which may positively change the dynamics of a^year group; ^
]/• changing teachers' and students' negative perceptions and expectations of each other;
changing teaching styles, e.g. from authoritarian to authoritative or from defiance am
HficatiorUo deviance.dnsulatij)e strategies (Hargreaves, 1975);
'sji increasing participation in classroom and school decision-making, e.g. class and school councils;
L* changing classroom organisation, e.g. distribution of materials and equipment and the physical layout of the classroom to minimise disruption;
changing elements of the pastoral system, e.g. pastoral roles and^f^erral processes;
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The ecological perspective
V* changing the school ethos, e.g. implementing effective whole-school policies related to learning as well as behaviour;
k/* changing home-school relationships, e.g. implementing home-school agreements.
Interventions should be directed at those systems that are seen as directly or indirectly influencing particular problem behaviours.
Ecological evaluation
Ecological evaluation assesses the effects of ecological interventions on problem behaviour. This involves establishing a pre-intervention baseline and assessing changes in behaviour when ecological variables are al^r^d^Changes in the physical, spatial and social ecologies of classrooms and schools may affect the behaviour of groups as well as individuals. The effects of some ecological interventions are more easily evaluated than are others, e.g. changes in seating arrangements and grouping of students. A change in seating plan may positively affect the group dynamics in classrooms. Restructuring of forms or classes may positively affect the dynamics of a year group.
The effects of interventions on student perceptions, attitudes and expectations also need to be evaluated. The social and physical environments could remain unchanged but students' perceptions may change positively towards those environments leading to a decrease in problem behaviour. With regard to teachers' perceptions of their students' school adjustment this may depend on the teachers' application of personal criteria. Teachers' evaluation of problem behaviour may vary significantly depending on their perceptions. Teachers may perceive the same student differently to the extent that the student is problematic for some and not others. Students frequently relate differently to different teachers and different contexts. Where this occurs evaluation should^teajjejmt these variations as they may have implications for future interventions.
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