6 The humanistic perspective It's not (so much) what you do it's the way that you do it. Emotionally literate children have increased resilience to mental health problems. (Mental Health Foundation, 1999). The basis of humanistic psychology is concerned with the way people function as whole beings that have thoughts and feelings. The original concepts were formulated by psychologists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow and others, but are continually being developed and applied by many workers, some who would not identify themselves with this perspective. The field of humanistic psychology is not a clearly defined one and is characterised particularly by the values to which it holds. | Rogexs£jft974) view is that tqb_ej^y_human is to be in a continual state of learning and it is this idea which makes the humanistic perspective especially perjjngpJLfcff-schools when considering the management of behaviour. This applies to the management of staff as well as pupils. The humanistic approach to managing behaviour tries to maximise a pupil's inherent motivation to learn by minimising factors that undermine or inhibit this process. In school, this will involve recognising that the way pupils feel about themselves and their capabilities is crucial to their success as independent learners. Maslow (1998) clarifies how needs such as physical/safety needs have to be adequately met before self-esteem even becomes an issue. Learning is a natural process At the core of the perspective is the view thatjearning is Abasic^drjjye and that the way we feel is strongly influentiaMn the efficacy of this process. "This" is most importantly true about the way we feel about ourselves as a individual. This approach aims to identify factors which enhance or inhibit a pupil's ability to give their attention to the demands of the learning situation. It also reminds us that it is useful to take into account the fact that pupils are individuals with their own lives and feelings and, if we do not, we may limit the horizons of pupils as well as iijjpede^ the learning process itself. One concept developed by Rogers is 'congruency'. Where there is a lack of congruency, either witlunji person orbetween a person and their environment, there is conflict. Within the school situation this will often be revealed by inappropriate or undesirable behaviour. Maslow argues that these behaviours result from attempts on 60 The humanistic perspective the part of the individual to meet basic needs. Maslow schematises these needs in his 'hierarchy of needs' with physiological and survival needs at the base and 'self-actualisation' (or in terms of schools, a 'fully independent learner') at the apex. Self-esteem is concerned with the feelings that we have about ourselves and is built on feedback that we receive, particularly in our early years, from those around : us. The humanistic view is that we learn best when we feel good about ourselves, or .!. to use Rogers' term, we are able to show ourselves 'uncpr^ijjrm^^po^^^vej^gard'. Goleman (1996) explores the important part feelings play in people's lives. In^fhis book he discusses how being 'emotionally literate' is an important aspect of people's ability to learn and to apply their learning. Minds like parachutes Minds, like parachutes, only function when open.1 Humanistic psychology holds that people are^refjexiye' (John McLeod in Woolf and Dryden, 1996), i.e. able to reflect on their thoiigiu^-ancLtheir feelings in responsg_to ^exp^rience It is this ability which allows people to have choice about their actions rather tlwu^p^ding_aujojnatirajh^and rigidiy_tocertainstimuli. Stress and threat, either in the present or as unresolved issues from the past, can reduce the individual's ability to be reflective and creative. This in turn can 'force' them into inappropriate and unsatisfactory responses to situations, which may 'work' in the short term but be ^cciuniej^pjQ^dji^^ the long term. Pupils are most likeJyJoj2e^flej^£JwhenJhey feel safe enough andj:oj)d_enough about themselves to have^pejuainds'. A sense of self derives from both an individual's reflexivity and their experience of social interaction. Humanistic counselling frequently aims tg. reopjjcije^ the personal view of 'me' and the socially defined person that is 'me'. People learn who they are and what kind of people they are from how significant others around them react to them and treat them. The poem found in many schools, 'Children Learn What They Live' by Dorothy Law Nolte (Nolte and Harris, 1998), which includes the following lines, describes this relationship: If children live with criticism, they learn to condemn, If children live with hostility, they learn to fight, If children live with approval, they learn to like themselves... Children who develop a positive self-concept will, as they grow older, be less dependent on those around them for a sense of worth and consequently be more resilient to life's ups and downs. Initially, lack of confidence and poor self-esteem may be limited to specific areas but in the longer term, if the individual continues to experience failure and negative feedback, the 'islands' of low self-esteem can enlarge, link up and eventually^pep^ade^their entire sense of self. Physical beings The humanistic approach recognises that we are physical beings_and jwhen we experience the world we do so through jjiejnediumj^pivysical bodies as much as7if not more than, our minds - 'I have a gut feeling... You've broken my heart ...I can't 1 Notice outside the church adjacent to, what was then, Lewisham Teachers Centre 61 Perspectives on Behaviour stomach this... I've got cold feet about it..." Feelings are what make things seem important to us and, in this way, motivate us to action. When we feel happy we might smile and say nice things to people, when we feel lonely we might rinj^someone, when we^e^cross we might kick the cat. Sometimes painful feelings need to be expressed directly in order to ease the discomfort or as part of the process of coming to terms with experience - when we are sad, we cry; when we are embarrassed or nervous, we laugh; when we are afraid or shocked, we^tremble; when we are bored or physically tense, we^yawn. This can also apply to happiness - when we are 'overjoyed' we need to tell"everybody about it. (It is interesting to note that in Chinese Medicine too much joy is said to injure the heart.) A teacher told me of a recent example of the impact of an emotional experience on learning. A pupil in her school was in Turkey, visiting his grandparents, during the recent earthquake. This child generally committed little to paper but, on returning to school, he was able to write a powerful description of his terrifying experience. He and his family were dejigb^ed^ when the story was reproduced in the local newspaper - which helped turn a tragedy into a positive experience. Socialisation TJm2^h^p_da_lisation, emotional processes are often discouraged and becomepver-controlled - 'big_boys_^o^cnf_ or 'nice girls don't get angry' -pleading to_a_jack of congruency between feelings and perception. Boys are not supposed to feel scared and so this sense of vulnerability often becomes overlaid with a layer of externally directed anger - 'the best means of defence is attack'. It seems likely that this process may contribute to a predominance of acting-out behaviour in boys. (The end of the film Rambo - First Blood contains a moving scene which makes the connection between violence and the unexpressed painful emotion that underlies it.) This could also have implications for boys' abilities to listen well and to be empathic. For girls, socialisation tends to reinforce a lack of assertiveness and a socially subordinate position in society and relationships. Expressing feelings and the need for attention To be healthy, feelings need to be acknowledged or expressed and failure to do this adequately or appropriately can lead to 'acting-out' or withdrawn behaviour. Unreleased feelings, in the long term, can lead to both psychological conflict and physical 'dis-ease'. In order for these processes of release to occur effectively, a child has to feel safe and cared about. This is most likely to occur when parents or carers are able to give their child full, non-judgemental attention or 'unconditional positive regard'. Wipfler (1990, 1995a, 1995b) describes an approach for parents to give their full, interested attention to their children through what she describes as 'play listening'. Many children learn that they can only reliably get an adult's attention by behaving badly or doing something that irritates the adult. The quality of attention that they receive at this point is usually poor but, to the child, must seem preferable to no attention at all. To beignored is the worst punishment; it does seem that for more desperate children this feeling may be more extreme and they may feel that 62 The humanistic perspective they only exist or that they only matter when they are being 'noticed'. In the absence of positive emotional interactions, an interaction filled with negative emotion can be needed to provide this sense of being real or alive. Because this type of response fails in actually meeting the child's needs, the behaviour is repeated in the 'hope' that 'this time it will work' - like any addiction, it is only a temporary; fix. The behaviour will not only be repeated when the child is reminded of those particular feelings but also when the child perceives an adult as 'likely to provide the attention they seek'. This may explain why a 'businesslike' teacher may be treated better by pupils than a 'caring' one. The most effective teachers are likely to be those who are able to adjust their 'style' to the requirements of the situation. John Robertson in his training sessions and in Robertson (1989) highlights the importance of how we appear as teachers to the pupil in the process of gaining their co-operation. Where the teacher's own feelings guide the interaction, communication is often unsuccessful, especially in the longer term. Where the teacher takes into account 'the receptive state' of the pupil and adjusts their choice of words, tone of voice, expression, posture and proximity appropriately, then a successful interaction is more likely. Bill Rogers points out that both teacher and pupil can sometimes benefit from a period of cooling^ off following an emotional interaction. if you carry on like that it will end in tears...' Many parents are familiar with the experience of their young children behaving badly towards bedtime. This frequently leads to an 'accident' that ends in tears or in some kind of confrontation with the parent. Often, a firmly but lovingly expressed 'No!' will be adequate to unlock the gates of emotion. It is as if the child recognises that in order to be able to calm down to go to sleep they need to release some of the pei\t^upj;eelings that they have gathered during the day. Where this fails to happen adequately or effectively (often because the parent lacks time or is stressed themselves) the child is leftwith a^bacjdog ofjunexpressed feelings. This can leave them in a wjujjging^or whining mode or alternatively the feelings may temporarily disappear only to re-emerge when a similar situation arises at some future point. The .child then continues to behave 'badlylin order to ehcj£a response from the parent that will help them release the residue of feelings through for instance, crying, tantrums and Jaughten If this continues, the child may then turn to other 'ca1ringT~aduTfs^uciras teachers for the attention theyjcjave^ When I was a teacher in an ,Qff^site-unit for pupils with behavioural difficulties, one of them turned up one afternoon with a large piece of wood. It required the intervention of the police and a police cell to be able to provide the f^rrnness that he needed to stop. The older and bigger children get, the harder it is to provide firm limits which reinforces the importance of intervention in Reception and KS1 wherever possible. Teachers can be jnadverte^itly drawn into responding to the behaviour rather than (at least in part) to the need being expresse^_bx_tiie_chJ2d_through the behaviour. This can lead tolilPexacejkati^ of thel^ehaviour difficulties. Dreikurs (1982) discusses an approach to responding to the underlying feeling which he describes as 'revealing the pupil's mistaken goal'. In order to minimise the child's confusion between 'what is OK at home and what is OK at school', school structures and 63 Perspectives on Beliaviour routines need to emphasise jhe differences so that the child's hopes of gaining the kind, of attention that lhey_are^oL_receiving_at-home _are„ not ur^w^ngly encouraged. What also needs to be emphasised is that the school has other things to offer, such as opportunities for success in learning and the development of positive relationships with peers and adults. It may also be necessary for the school to identify strategies involving outside agencies through the development of Pastoral Support Plans. ^Containing' feelingsjn^chpol Behaviour policies and structures that create safety through emphasising clarity consistency and fairness, and that focus on the positive and raise their pupils' self-esteem, are likely to minimise behaviour difficulties. Such policies help make it clear that a school is unable to meet these 'frozen needs' from the child's past, but that they are able to meet some of the real needs that the child has. If schools can provide a positive ethos and environment in which the pupil J • is physically and emotionally safe, \J* can experience that they belong and are valued, can have successful learning experiences and grow in confidence and competence, then the school can feel that they have done much to minimise the factors that can trigger difficult behaviour as well as maximising the growth of pupils that are confident, resilient, resourceful and have a zest for learning. Schools are not responsible for^rting pupils' feelings pjuMjmt they can provide a combination of warm relationships and clear discipline'structures which may then enable pupils to feel safe enough to learn to contain their own feelings and make the best of the learning opportunities on offer. Feelings and emotions as triggers for behaviour difficulties Table 6.1 indicates a range of feelings that can arise within the school situation. Column 2 suggests behaviours, which might result, and column 3 suggests broad strategies for minimising the^inadve^tej)t4riggering of such feelings. It is important to remember that the emotional content of our communication through ch_oicg_of_words, tong_of voice^poshrreand__body langnagp rarjJ^j^Z^T^iini^tf'^t thanjhe_strategy itself. StrategieFthat emphasise all the familiar concepts such as creating consistency, predictability and safety, communication of respect, enhancing self-esteem and independence are important, but it is important to remember that there are no right or foolproof ways of doing these things and creativity is of the essence. -'\^Nr"-rs-^ 64 The humanistic perspective Table 6.1 Feelings, behaviours and strategies Feeling Possible behaviour Strategies to minimise or avoid inappropriate behaviour Frustrated/stupid Temper outbursts; playing the class clown: behaviour that distracts away from the work or getting sent out; destroying own or other's work; poor quality work; inability to cope with challenge; new work Appropriate tasks and subtasks; appropriate and relatively immediate positive feedback; being prepared for the task - work set in a context (This is what we're going to do, these are the words we will use, this is what I want you to do, this is how it will look, these are the steps you will take - here they are written down'); reflection: 'Oh, what a shame. You must feel really fed-up that the model fell down again.' Angry 'Make me' behaviour - refusal to co-operate or work; temper outbursts Acknowledging the pupil's feeling; self-monitoring of feelings; temper control groups Anxious or scared Over-reaction or 'stupid'/unresponsive; silly behaviour; laughing or smiling; 'Not waving but drowning'; frozen or frozen grin; aggressive behaviour; 'Make me' behaviour; constant need for reassurance; daydreaming; deliberate destructive behaviour; 'provocative victim' Clear rules; routines - predictable and consistent responses; clear signs that things are safe - teacher 'in control', e.g. incidents seen to be acted on; activities preparing for transition (yr 1-2, yr 6-7) Lonely Isolation; 'lost'; always on the periphery; last one to be chosen Being noticed appropriately; tasks which involve joining in; hearing about others; working with others; circle time - cooperative activities; sharing experiences -role playing; making friends; being taught playground games (they could then teach them); setting up lunchtime clubs/activities Not mattering, insignificant Bully; victim; provocative Being noticed, having appropriate attention, finding reasons why you matter; status -board monitor; team work Out of place, confused Always getting it wrong, no sense of routine or rules; isolated; not included Explicit and consistent rules, routines and expectations; predictable responses to positive and negative behaviour; disapproving of the behaviour not the child; rehearsal of making friends; circle of friends; encouraging workmates; roles; status positions; activities Miserable, depressed Withdrawn; little or no enthusiasm; difficulty finishing work Interesting work; pleasant activities; opportunities to talk; verbal acknowledgement of unhappiness; involvement with others; positive feedback Disappointed, let down, betrayed, blamed Blaming others - always their fault; unreliable; little trust Clear and agreed behaviour and work expectations and limits; agreed picture of what 'it looks like when it's right'; follow-up to show you are consistent and trustworthy; fair treatment Embarrassed Lying; laughing; smirking (particularly when confronted); changing subject Where possible avoid overwhelming attention; opportunities to have practice at dealing with attention - e.g. circle time Overwhelmed Apparent disinterest: defensive Appropriate demands to build confidence at task; pupil involved in incremental plan for tasks; 'Solution-foeused Brief Therapy' strategies Bored Dreaming; disruptive activities; activities that create 'entertainment' Appropriate, meaningful and stimulating challenges and tasks Perspectives on Behaviour Schooling and Maslow's hierarchy of needs Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualisation Self-esteem Social needs Survival and Safety needs Physiological Note: This has been modified by shifting the 'Survival' aspect up a level and combining it with 'Safety' needs. Maslow's 'hierarchy of needs' postulates that a person must have their needs met at one stage before moving on to the next. For instance, a pupil cannot be fully involved in the learning process in school while they are hungry or feeling scared or badly about themselves. In order for schools to create an effective learning environment these needs should be acknowledged and responded to appropriately. Some needs can be met while others cannot be. For instance, a school should attempt to make itself a safe place for all pupils. However, a pupil who is being abused at home may well not feel safe in school because of the feelings that they bring from home. It makes sense for the school to recognise that this situation may well affect the pupil's ability to learn but it is also important to identify areas of school life that may remind the child of those feelings and, if possible, modify the situation to minimise their effects. Physiological/survival need: food and drink The need to survive is fundamental. For some children, these basic needs are not consistently met within the family situation and they can arrive at school without adequate food or sleep. While children are hungry they are unlikely to be able to engage completely with academic tasks presented. Some schools have dealt with this problem by providing breakfast clubs or by individual teachers having a supply of biscuits for particularly needy individuals. At a broader level, late monung_camofr£n be a difficult time in terms of behaviour management. As childrejvls blood-sugar levels,drop it becomes physically harder for thein_±o_conGentraie. Due to the timing of lunchtimes within the school day, some children, and in the end staff, can be put at a great disadvantage. j Dietarxissues that may need to be considered by schools might include the eating of sweets or drinks with a high sugar content as these can drastically affect a child's blood-sugar balance with a consequent effect on attention and behaviour. Caffeine-containing drinks such as some colas may contribute to difficulties. Certain additives and colourings are also believed by some authorities to do this. The need for safety -__. Pupils need to feel safe from physical or emotional threat in order to feel free to turn their attention to other matters such as learning and co-operating with others. Such threats, may stem from circumstances in the home (physical, emotional or sexual abuse) or be 66 The humanistic perspective present in school (perhaps bullying). The events may be current or they may be in the past but still be casting a powerful shadow into the present. When children feel under threat they are likely to feel that they have to protect themselves by acting out or withdrawing. When children have been sensitised in this way they may not be able to distinguish between real and imagined threats and so over-react to essentially inoffensive situations. Another way to view 5uch_reactions_is_to_ see them as the child finding a moderately 'safe^situation to_j^pjgss^injlar but deeper emotions. This sort of dynamic also explains why people go to the cinema to feel scared or have a good cry oxjwhen a child leaves a party and^s^^aggn^oj^V when Their balloon,-bursts. Simply, these events become opportunities for an individual to deal with much larger emotional issues in safe,^!^!^^^^!^^ When dealing with such situations it is important to respond to the emotion that the individual is experiencing whether we are able to recognise its significance or not. Home experiences Often, troublesome children come from backgrounds: • that lack clear, consistent and predictable limits; • that have a lack of warmth, positive feedback or valuing of the child for themselves, or where such occurrences are unpredictable or inconsistent; • where reactions/responses to children are based on adults' feelings (not even necessarily about the child) rather than respect, logic or rationality; • where children are either left unsupervised or always have to fit in with the needs of adults; • where children are given attention only when they demand it, often inappropriately; • that are not safe either because of direct abuse or exposure to inappropriate sights or experiences; • where children are treated as bad when they behave badly; • where children have few opportunities to spend time with adults giving them full, interested attention, showing them in Rogers' words, 'unconditional positive regard' particularly while they are playing/learning; • where there is an absence of modelling of appropriate ways to manage one's own feelings. Often - 'Do as I tell you' rather than 'Do as 1 do'. How to Talk So Kids Will Listen and How to Listen So Kids Will Talk (Faber and Mazlish, 1980) is a useful book for parents and teachers of younger pupils.) A child is more likely to feel safe in school: • where the adults seem confident and in control; • when there are clear rules/expectations which are consistently enforced; • where there are logical consequences to misbehaviour; • when responses to good and bad behaviour are predictable and fair; • when limits are known and are not dependent on a teacher's particular level of tolerance on a particular day; 67 Perspectives on Behaviour • where the atmosphere is positive and encouraging; • where incidents that do occur are seen to be dealt with; • where children's concerns are listened to; • where repetitive transgressions are dealt with more seriously and the pupil does not feel that things just 'go back to square one' after each incident; • where they have positive peer relationships; • where instances of good behaviour and work are identified more frequently than poor work and behaviour (Alistair Smith in his presentations has recommended a ratio Qf__4_pgsitives to lnegativejL his book^Sjgith^i£>6) is extremely stimulating and contains a wide range of ideas and approaches for raising self-esteem and pupil achievement); • where pupils are not forced into situations that they cannot handle. Playtimes that are a time of minimal structure and supervision are often the worst situation for some children to manage. They then seem forced to behave badly in order to be brought in to avoid it. Schools need to address issues such as this. At other times, pupils cannot cope with classroom situations. Some schools have found it helpful to provide a 'storm home' (see Clarke and Murray, 1996) where they can go before something happens, until such time as they can manage. Cues and communication in behaviour management In creating safety for pupils, it is important to develop a stepped approach so that we are able to respond to behaviour with the minimum of disruption to the teaching and learning process. Rogers (1990c) refers to such a set of strategies as LIMI (Least jh^tgy^y^t^ intention being to identify the least intrusive strategy thaFwill work in" a situation. An important element of a stepped approach is to communicate the level of the problem to the pupil so that they can adjust their behaviour accordingly. Such a cugjng^ and warning system is particularly important for children who come from chaotic or inconsistent backgrounds. For children who have a poor understanding of social conventions, these will need to be taught. Disruptive behaviour can be seen as an attempt on the part of the pupil to establish boundaries or to have them enforced - so that they can feel safe. Once they feel secure, they are then able to put their attention on the task at hand. Sometimes schools expect the putting in place of a structure to magically prevent a difficult pupil from making further ^trar^grejsions. Unfortunately, it may be necessary for the most desperate pupils to experience the full range of sanctions before they understand that the staff will be consistent; the pupil will then be more likely to respond to strategies lower down the hierarchy_Gc)i^j3eJ}a^^ is unlikely to eliminate bad behaviour; what it does aim to do is tpje_ssen,the Likelihood of it hap~penmg^jnmimise itssejverityjv^^ in-hajidwhh^ktion^ Social needs - the need to be cared about and to belong Maslow, Dreikurs and others have identified the need of children to have a sense of belonging. The rituals and routines of school such as register-taking, assembly, team sports and even whole-class teaching can provide opportunities for this. Group 68 The humanistic perspective differences as well as individual differences can make it difficult for some children to feel as if they belong. Broad factors that might prevent pupils feeling as if they don't belong might include physical differences, physical disabilities, race and ethnicity mobility and poverty. Two further areas are gender and class. Gender Experience suggests that the majority of referrals to special needs services, whether for learning or behaviour, are boys. This might indicate a difficulty for many boys in 'fitting in' with the school organisation and resources. For many boys, just to be in a classroom doing ordinary school work can be quite an effort and many cannot wait to be out in the playground playing football. The value placed on academic activities by the school is frequently much higher than that placed on the kinds of activities that some boys might be more interested in. This may suggest reasons why boys often dominate both classroom and playground. It may be interesting to viewJiiedifficuIty not-as-^^probjem with boys' but as an indication that some of their basic needs are not beingmet by current pdncatiojajjmwjsinn. Class The values promoted in schools usually relate strongly to academic success. These values are traditionally more likely to be held by middle-class families in this country. Schools may therefore favour middle-class children because they are most suited to pupils who live in homes where: • education is valued as an end in itself; • the parents have had good experiences of schooling and regard education positively; • the parents feel confident and comfortable with schools as organisations and teachers as professionals; • books are freely available and reading is valued; • support and resources for homework are freely available; • family mobility is not an issue; • the cost of uniform, equipment and trips etc. is not a problem; • parents can effectively contribute to homework or broader aspects of school life. Excluded pupils A particular group of pupils who find it difficult to feel that they belong are those who are excluded as a result of their behaviour and either have to return to their own school or have to transfer to another. Some schools recognise that it is important to be proactive by making particular efforts to reintegrate these pupils by providing a range of 'positive engagement^strategies to facilitatejhisprocess. Transition time Another crucial time to focus on 'belonging' is when pupils transfer from one school to another (or indeed from one class to another). Strong feelings of fear and anxiety as well 69 Perspectives on Behaviour as of hope and expectation can be evoked by this aspect of school life which, if not well managed, can lead to difficulties in adjustment. Some schools provide opportunities for visits or set up joint projects; these are likely to be most effective where there are opportunities for thepupils to articulate their feelings about the changes. It is easier for pupils to move on ancT^mb^flce the new Situation it the sadness'and loss, fear and anxiety are acknowledged. Such work can happen directly through activities such as circle time or more indirectly through writing, drama or 'research projects'. School strategies \J In order to create a sense of 'belonging', there needs to be a perception of what the V school stands for and the values that it holds, particularly in relation to its pupils. A school can do this by highlighting: • how members of 'this school' do things; • what 'this school' is proud about; • how we show off our school and ourselves; This can be achieved by: • the way the school looks inside and presents itself to the outside world; • the way staff are seen to treat one another; • the way staff are seen to treat pupils; • the way all members of the school treat parents and visitors; • the displays on the walls (research by Professor Harry Daniels et al. has revealed interesting information about how pupils perceive displays of their work and of the values that they transmit, e.g. do the displays value conformity or diversity? Smith (1996) argues that it is preferable to put information relating to current topics and work on the walls rather than pupils' work); • weekly 'positive feedback' assemblies; • where pupils excluded from class are placed, e.g. not in the entrance hall; • successes appearing in the local media. Many of these ideas can be directly translated to the classroom. Classroom strategies These include the following: • co-operative activities and team games to strengthen group identity; • 'following instruction' games such as Simon Says in order to develop positive experiences of co-operating and following instructions; • developing 'our class rules'; ^ • bringing in 'visitors' or outsiders; • circle-time activities such as: 'Sharing things we have in common' or 'silent statements' (these allow people to acknowledge the truth of a statement for them, e.g., 'All those wearing blue socks stand up and change places'; 'All those who 70 The humanistic perspective have experienced bullying in this school, stand up and change places'; this process is shown in the 'Lucky Duck' Circle Time video (see the Videos section in the Bibliography)); • special roles and other ways to contribute to the class/school; • 'friendship trees'; • exploring developing friendships through role-play; • ensuring that rules and routines are clearly understood; many rules are unspoken and children from differing cultures and backgrounds may benefit from these being made explicit so that a common understanding of them can be established; • practising conflict resolution strategies/assertiveness strategies for dealing with \ difficult situations. Although these strategies can be used to improve particular individuals' difficulties, many of them can be used to deal with whole classes if, for instance, they have a problem^gellir)2'/being able listen to one another/following instructions. It is interesting to note that one of the points from the summary of Bright Futures (Mental Health Foundation, 1999) identifies an increase in problems in the area of interpersonal skills: Fear of abuse and fears about road safety together with a reduction in neighbour and extended family responsibility for the community's children are increasing the number of children who are unpractised in making and consolidating friendships, dealing with conflict, taking risks and team games - all key components of emotional literacy. A key skill is not so much giving attention to children but identifying what can simply be done to make them feel noticed, e.g. using their name, noticing something about them, referring to something they have said previously, commenting on their football team, allowing them to overhear you positively commenting to a colleague about their behaviour or work. Belonging involves not only being noticed and being valued but also being able to contribute to the group through, perhaps, special roles or opportunities to contribute to class discussion. For particularly isolated pupils jXIiBdgs^pJJEriend&^ta strategy for ' involving members of a class in supporting an individual child who may be isolated - see 'Circles of friends' in Educational Psychology in Practice 11 (4) (1996)) can be a positive experience for both the individual and the class. Perhaps the most powerful tool that a school has in terms of behaviour management is for pupils to have a sense that they have something to lose by jeopardising their relationship with the school. Once a pupil feels that they have nothing to lose, the task becomes much harder. It can be productive to make it clear to pupils whose behaviour stems from a difficult home background that they have a choice about whether they wish to create in school similar difficulties to home or whether they wish to make school a haven from those difficulties. Lee Cantor, famous for the 'assertive discipline' approach to behaviour management, in a recent presentation (Birmingham, 1998) was emphasising the importance of building positive relationships with pupils with behaviour difficulties and that without this basis, many behaviour strategies would have limited effect. Strategies such as star charts may work at a behaviour modification level but they can often be most effective when used as a means for teachers to reinforce a warm, positive relationship. 71 Perspectives on Behaviour It is important to recognise that the ability to fit in to school life is not a definer of quality of the individual or an accurate predictor of their ability to make a success of their lives outside the narrow confiijgsof the school system. Schools may have to say that it is not possible to contaiii a particular pupil within the system as it exists, but should hold on to the idea that the pupil is not inherently bad or inadequate for being unable to function within it. Self-esteem Whatever we show to other people, we always get a backstage view of ourselves. (Garrison Keillor) Self-esteem (or positive self-regard as Rogers termed it) is built from the responses of those around a child and is the difference between their actual self and their ideal self.. As Fontana (1993) puts it, 'Self-esteem is concerned with the value we place on ourselves...', that is, thejiifference b^tw^eriiiow4J^e-^upil4tas-learn.ed to perceive th^mselves_and_ how U^yJ^eHevetjney^ The initial influence on a child will be the parents or carers, but as the child grows older, peers and other adults make their contribution. At a broader level, the societal groups of class, race and gender with which the individual identifies can also affect an individual's self-esteem. Fontana (1993) in discussing Coopersmith's (1967) work identifies the following home factors in the developmenf@2igFself-esteerny7 ^5—respect was shown for their opinions and points of view; [•jjarents knew a great deal about their children and showed interest in them; ;«_parents showed affection to their children; |^»__there was consistency in the use of discipline; • discipline relied upon rewards for good behaviour and upon withdrawal of approval for bad. Societal patterns of racism, classism and sexism can be mirrored or minimised by the values and practices adopted by schools. These can, in turn, affect the way these factors affect individual pupils and their response to the demands of the education system. Schools that recognise these dynamics are likely to respond positively and be proactive in dealing with these issues. A sense of being valued is a vital ingredient in developing trust between pupils and their teachers as well as between parents and the school. Identifying self-esteem Table 6.2 indicates some of the characteristics of pupils with high and low self-esteem. From the table, it can be seen that many of the qualities that are hoped for in a pupil are related to high self-esteem and that many behaviours which are of concern to teachers are associated with low self-esteem. Lawrence (1987) has discussed how giving pupils regular counselling from nonprofessionals not only raised self-esteem but also improved their reading skills. It would be unusual now for schools to be able to find those levels of human resource or time. Nevertheless, one head teacher identified a particular skill of effective teachers as 'communicating that they are paying attention to pupils when they listen to them, even for very brief interactions'. Ted Wragg in a recent talk to headteachers (Leeds, October 1999), reported some research which suggested that teachers have 72 The humanistic perspective Table 6.2 Characteristics of pupils with high and low self-esteem High self-esteem Low setf-esteem Confident/assured/self-reliant Lack confidence or anxious; need to please; over-react to situations Independent learner Continual need for reassurance/guidance Stand up for themselves Get teased, bullied or ignored Can show initiative and leadership Over-assertive; aggressive; need to dominate others Can take responsibility for their behaviour Full of excuses for behaviour; blame others; feel that they are unfairly treated Work/play well with others Isolated or unpopular Listen well to peers and adults No attention for others Generally appropriate and co-operative behaviour Attention seeking; reassurance seeking Others listen to them Ignored Can cope with frustration React badly to frustration Can learn from failure Easily give up; destroy work; feel stupid Accept appropriate criticism Overwhelmed by criticism; ignore/deny criticism Realistic view of themselves and their abilities Unrealistic views of themselves and their abilities Gain attention appropriately Gain attention inappropriately; class clown or need to impress others Able to respond flexibility and deal with changes Lack of flexibility and inability to deal with disappointment Able to work at tasks Distract attention away from work Able to read/respond to social signals Inability to read social signals Emotions - a response to the present Emotions dominated by past events more than a thousand pupil interactions on a daily basis, which, as he points out, is one reason why teaching is such hard work. What it also means is that there are many possibilities each day for enhancing individual pupils' self-esteem if the quality, ratherthan thelength, of the interaction is considered. Jjfg^ut^^r^JSBfTlTriof rhgggpyKsee Durrant, 1995) is a fairly recenl^pproacli_ta oojiriselling_which is sometimes used by educational psychologists. It combines a number of strategies that can also be applied less formally in the classroom by teachers. These include approaches that: • fQgjjs_jon_an individual's successes - 'When did it work?', 'Which bits did go right?', 'When didn't the problem occur?'; • break down thej*aj^beiweeiisjdf