Empowering interview
Listening to people – participatory methods in special needs education. Interview as an example.
uMaija Hirvonen
uJAMK University of Applied Sciences, Teacher Education College.
umaija.hirvonen@jamk.fi

Goals
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uQualitative research is an inquiry process, that aims at understanding a phenomenon (e.g. social
and health problems) from the point of view of people who are studied.
uThe researcher attempt to build a complex, holistic picture of the phenomenon and conducts the
study in an natural setting.  (Flick 2009)
uThe main goal is to understand how we can support students, teachers (…others who???) in
activating their participation…
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Research strategies
uEmpirical research:
u       causal relations between variables
u        -Sample from a broad population, testing of variables, measuring the
u        changes quantitatively, testing of hypotheses
u         =explain the causes between phenomena
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uFor example:
uHow material reward  given by teachers affects childrens`  learning motivation?
uData gathering is done:
u-by taking a considered or random sample of school schildren of different age
u-making two groups (one group is rewarded materially, one group not)
u-pre- and after-tests  on learning motivation are done
u

Research strategies, continues
uSurvey research: data gathering in a standardized way from a group of people
u        -sample from a broader population using sructured questionnaires
u          or interviews
u        =describe, coparise ja explain phenomena
u
uFor example:
uWhat is the learning motivation  of high school students?
u
uTha data gathering is done by
u-taking a random sample of all high school students
u-sending structured questionnaires to them
u

Research strategies, continues
uCase study: intensive, detailed data gathering or small sample of people
u         -one case, situation, as a target an individual person, group or
u          community
u         -mixed methods (observations, interviews, documentary)
u         -describe phenomena.
u
uFor example:
uHow are the expectations of women towards studying?
uData gathering:
u-choose one community whose women are interviewed, observed  and who are asked to keep a diary for
a fixed time
u

How to do a research plan (in a quantitative or qualitative research)?
uDefine your research purpose:
ua short description of the topic, connections to a theory
uFor example: if you are researching childrens`motivation you should familiarize yourself  with
motivation theories
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uFind previous researches on the topic  and ask yourself  what new information  your research will
bring to this topic (added value of your research)
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uFormulate the research questions
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uChoose research target group/groups and the number of them
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uPlan how to gather data
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uEstimate the resources needed  and Set timetable
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Different research strategies
uObjective
uperspective
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uFree research frame
      Formal, structured
                    research frame

Empirical
research
Formal and
structured surveys
Formal and
structural
interviews
Focused/
thematic
interviews
Systematical
observation
Open, non-structural
enquiries
Free discussions
Diaries, letters, autographies
Participative
observations

In a research (quantitative or qualitative or combined) we have to divide the phenomenal and the
methodology level:
uQuantitative research:  Causative connections are expected
Phenomenal level:
Pedagogical methods                       Childrens` self image
of parents
Methodology level:
Interviews of parents                       Self image survey by Rogers

The phenomenal and the methodology level, continues
uQualitative research:  No causal connections are expected
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Phenomenal level:
Pedagogical methods
Childrens` self image
Methodology level: Interviews of the parents and children

Developing work with research
u                                                                    Current situation:
u                                                                          Needs analysis
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Establishment
Analysis of the work;
u  of the new work model             Research as a ”mirror”            contradictions , problems
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u                                               (e.g.interviews, diaries, observations)
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                                                                       Towards new work model

Seven research stages
uThematizing
uDesigning
uInterview situation
uTranscription
uAnalysis
uVerification
uReporting

Thematizing an interview study
u= theoretical clarification of the research theme
u= formulation of research questions
u
uWhy?   What?   How?
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uWhy: clarifying the purpose of the study
uWhat: obtaining preknowledge of the subject matter
uHow:  -becoming familiar with different techniques of interviewing and analyzing
u           -deciding which technique to apply for the study
u           =designing the study

Designing an interview study (How?)
An example of a grade study (Kvale 2008)
uThematizing: formulation of hypotheses about the influence of grading on pupils on the basis of
previous studies
uDesigning: Planning the interviews with 30 high school pupils and 6 teachers
uInterviewing: A detailed guide was used for the individual interviews, each of which lasted about
45 minutes and was tape-recorded
uTranscribing: All 36 pupil and teacher interviews were transcribed verbatim, resulting in about
1000 pages of transcripts
uAnalyzing: The 30 pupil interviews were categorized with respect to different forms of grading
behaviour. The interviews with the pupils and the teachers were also subjected to more extensive
qualitative interpretations.
uVerifying: Reliability and validity checks were attempted throughout the project, including
interviewer and scorer reliability and validity of interpretations.
uReporting: The results were reported in a book and in journal articles.
u

From research questions to interview questions
Research questions
Interview questions
Which form of learning motivation dominates in a high school?
•Do you find the subjects you learn important?
•Do you find learning interesting in itself?
•What is your main purpose in going to high school?
•
Do the grades promote an external, instrumental motivation at the expense of an intrinsic
motivation for learning?
•Have you experienced a conflict between what you wanted to study and what you had to study to
obtain a good grade?
Does learning for grades socialize to working for wages?
•Have you been rewarded with money for getting good grades?
•Do you see any connection between money and grades?

From research questions to interview questions/practice
uPair work: Choose a research topic; Formulate 3 research questions and make 3 matching interview
questions
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Research questions
Interview questions
1.
1.
2.
3.
2.
1.
2.
3.
3.
1.
2.
3.

1. Different surveys
uSurvey per post/web page
uFor example: a posted survey to all social workers of a region
u
uControlled survey
u      -informed enquiry: the researcher deliveres the enquiry (at work places,
u        schools…)
u      -secured enquiry: the researcher has sent the enquiry and comes to collect
u       it
uFor example: the researcher meets social workers at seminars, conferences and deliveres or
collects the enquiries there
u

Questions of a survey enquiry
u1. Open questions, e.g.:
uDo you have wishes on the social services?
u______________________________________________________________
u______________________________________________________________
u2. Multiple choise questions, e.g.:
uThe number of children. Do you have
u No children
u                          1 – 3 children
u                          4 -6 children
u                          7 children or more
u
u3. Scale questions, e.g. What do you think of following claims?
u              Totally agree  Agree to some point  Neutral   Disagree to some point  Fully
disagree  I can`t say
u1.claim
u2. claim
u3. claim

2. Different interview types
uIndividual interview (for example a single mother)
uPair interview  (for example both parents together)
uGroup interview (for example social workers)
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uInterviews:
uOpen/not structured: proceeds with the course of the discussion
u      -Difficult, requires training, several interview situations
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uFocused /Thematic: between open and closed interview
u       -Thematic structure is planned, the course is flexible
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uClosed: form interview, structured list of questions, easy to carry out after the questions are
ready.
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Advantages of an interview
uInterviews are suitable if you want to emphasize  a research a person as a subject/active partner
in creating meanings for his/her experiences
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uResearch theme is uncommon, new, not investigated before
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uIf you want to link the interview to a wider context
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uThe research theme is complex and it is expeced that the interview will produce
u        multi levelled answers
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uIf you want to clarify answers
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uIf you want to deepen the topic (e.g. with additional questions)
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uIf the theme is sensitive or difficult

Disadvantages of an interview
uThe interviewer should be experienced and qualified
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uAn interview is time-consuming (especially the transcribe phase)
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uRisks: upon the interviewer, the interviewees, the interview situation….(reliability is doubtful)
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uCost-benefit ratio?
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uThere are no ready models for the analysis, interpretation and reporting the interview
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Interview situation
uEstablish credibility
uDemonstrate respect for the interviewee
uListen actively and reflectively (balance between talking and listening)
uThink clearly, logically and in the moment  (be flexible to change the topic)
uRemember what has been said
uBe curious, show interest

Interview situation/practice
uPair work:
uGive examples how to act in an interview situation:
u
u
uEstablish credibility
uDemonstrate respect for the interviewee
uListen actively and reflectively (balance between talking and listening)
uThink clearly, logically and in the moment  (be flexible to change the topic)
uRemember what has been said
uBe curious, show interest
u
u

Types of interview questions
uIntroductory questions: ”Can you tell me about…?”; ”Do you remember an occasion when…?”
-may be spontaneous, rich questions where the interviewees themselves provide what they have
experienced within the theme investigated.
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uFollow-up questions: The subject`s answers may be extended through the curious and persistent
attitude of the researcer (pauses, nods, repeating a significant word..). Notice ”red lights” in
the answers such as unusual terms, strong intonations.
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uProbing questions: ”Could you say something  more about…?””Can you give a more detailed
description of what happened?” (Pursue the interviewees to express more)
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uSpecifying questions: Try to get more precise descriptions (”What did you actually do when you
felt yourself hurt?”)
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uDirect questions: The interviewer directly introduces topics and dimensions at the end part of the
interview (after the subject has given his/her descriptions)
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Types of interview questions, continues
uIndirect questions: Apply questions to something what the interviewee does not say directly (”How
do you believe others think about…?”)
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uStructuring questions: The interviewer is responsible for the course of the interview: break
politely long answers that are irrelevant to the theme (”I would now like to introduce another
topic”), break the situation when the interviewee is exhaused, distressed.
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uSilence: Do not make a cross-examination, allow pauses, allow silence in order to give the subject
time to think and formulate his/her answers.
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uInterpreting quesions: Rephrase an answer (”You mean that…?”), ask for a clarification (”Did I
understand it correct that you ….?”).

Types of interview questions/practice
uPair work:
uChoose interview themes
uImagine that you are in an interview situation
uPractice different types of questions:
uIntroductory questions
uFollow-up questions
uProbing questions
uSpecifying questions
uDirect questions
uIndirect questions
uStructuring questions
uInterpreting questions
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Interview situation/practice
uDiscuss in small groups what factors there are to be taken into account when desingning an
interview!
u(e.g. location, environment, with or without family members etc…)
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uWhat does silence tell us in an interview situation?
uWhat do you do when facing silence/resistance, refusal…?
u

Analysis of an interview
uRecording the interview
uListening the interview carefully
uTranscribing the interview literally
uClassification
uThematic grouping
uTypological grouping
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uThe goal of the analysis phase is to systematize the data gathered by an interview, condense the
data to a shorter form and find out the implicit (hidden) meanings.
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Analysis of an interview, continues
uClassification
uX1
uX2                                                                                  Group A
uX3
uX4                                                                                   Group B
uX5
uX6
uX7
uX8                                                                                   Group C
uX9
uX10

Thematic grouping
uDifferent themes are derived from the transcribed text
u
uXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
uXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
uXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
u
uTheme 1
uTheme 2
uTheme 3

Typological grouping
uX1, X9          Type A
uX2, X7,  X8   Type B
uX5                 Type C
uX4,  X6          Type D

Structuring an Interview Report
uIntroduction – Thematizing clearly
uMethod – Desingning, Interviewing, transcribing and Analyzing: described in sufficient detail
uResults – Analysis and verification – the results are reported in a form wich gives a clear and
well structured overview of the main findings uDiscussion – The overall implications of the results
are discussed; the relevance of the findings to the original research questions; the theoretical
and practical implications of the findings.
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Ethical issues at seven research stages (Kvale 2008)
uThematizing: in addition to the scientific value of the knowledge the study should should be
targeted to improve the human situation investigated
uDesigning: ensure subjects`participation in the study, secure confidentiality, consider the
possible consequences for the subjects
uInterview situation: take into account the possible stress, changes in self-understanding
uTranscription: the confidentiality of the interviewees needs to be protected carefully (wheter the
transcribed text is loyal to the interviewee`s oral statements)
uAnalysis:  ensure that the interviewees have the possibility to a say their opinion on how their
statements are interpreted
uVerification:  report knowledge that is as secured and verified as possible
uReporting: when reporting private interviews in public make sure that the possible consequences
have been taken into account.
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