DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPING THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN 1 DEVELOPING THROUGH THE LIFE SPAN •Prenatal Development and the Newborn §Conception §Prenatal Development §The Competent Newborn • 2 –Infancy and Childhood §Physical Development §Cognitive Development §Social Development § • Adolescence §Physical Development §Cognitive Development §Social Development §Emerging Adulthood 3 –Adulthood §Physical Development §Cognitive Development §Social Development § §Reflections on Two Major Developmental Issues §Continuity and Stages §Stability and Change 4 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Issue Details Nature/Nurture How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our behavior? Continuity/Stages Is development a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages? Stability/Change Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age. 5 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE NEWBORN 6 •How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth, development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, sequence. Preview Question 1: How does life develop before birth? CONCEPTION 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 7 •A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 8 •A zygote is a fertilized egg with 100 cells that become increasingly diverse. At about 14 days the zygote turns into an embryo (a and b). PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 9 •At 9 weeks, an embryo turns into a fetus (c and d). Teratogens are chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus. THE COMPETENT NEWBORN •Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival, including rooting reflex which helps them locate food. • 10 Výsledek obrázku pro newborn Preview Question 2: What are some of the newborn’s abilities, and how do researchers explore infants’ mental abilities? INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD Stage Span Infancy Newborn to toddler Childhood Toddler to teenager 11 •Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years, the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT •Infants’ psychological development depends on their biological development. To understand the emergence of motor skills and memory, we must understand the developing brain. • 12 Preview Question 3: During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop? DEVELOPING BRAIN •At birth, most brain cells are present. After birth, the neural networks multiply resulting in increased physical and mental abilities. • 13 MATURATION •The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before walking, babbling before talking—this is called maturation. • •Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it. • 14 • MOTOR DEVELOPMENT •First, infants begin to roll over. Next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. Experience has little effect on this sequence. • 15 Výsledek obrázku pro motor development MATURATION AND INFANT MEMORY 16 •The earliest age of conscious memory is around 3½ years (Bauer, 2002). A 5-year-old has a sense of self and an increased long-term memory, thus organization of memory is different from 3-4 years. • Výsledek obrázku pro 3 years old COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 17 •Piaget believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make. • Výsledek obrázku pro trying to sit in small toy Preview Question 4: From the perspective of Piaget and of today’s researchers, how does a child’s mind develop? SCHEMAS 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 18 Schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences. ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_4UN04 19 •The process of assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into our current understanding (schema). The process of adjusting a schema and modifying it is called accommodation. Jean Piaget with a subject PIAGET’S THEORY AND CURRENT THINKING 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_Table 20 SENSORIMOTOR STAGE 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 21 •In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of sight are also out of mind. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE: CRITICISMS 22 •Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think —they do not have any abstract concepts or ideas. •However, recent research shows that children in the sensorimotor stage can think and count. 1.Children understand the basic laws of physics. They are amazed at how a ball can stop in midair or disappear. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE: CRITICISMS 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 23 •2. Children can also count. Wynn (1992, 2000) showed that children stared longer at the wrong number of objects than the right ones. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 24 •Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE: CRITICISM 25 •DeLoache (1987) showed that children as young as 3 years of age are able to use metal operations. When shown a model of a dog’s hiding place behind the couch, a 2½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-old did. EGOCENTRISM 26 •Piaget concluded that preschool children are egocentric. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view. •When asked to show her picture to mommy, 2-year-old Gabriella holds the picture facing her own eyes, believing that her mother can see it through her eyes. THEORY OF MIND 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 27 •Preschoolers, although still egocentric, develop the ability to understand another’s mental state when they begin forming a theory of mind. •The problem on the right probes such ability in children. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE 28 •In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities. •Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE 29 •Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Piaget called this formal operational thinking. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE 30 •Rudiments of such thinking begin earlier (age 7) than what Piaget suggested, since 7-year-olds can solve the problem below (Suppes, 1982). •If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is in school. What can you say about Mary? REFLECTING ON PIAGET’S THEORY 31 •Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas regarding growth and development in many cultures and societies. However, today’s researchers believe the following: 1.Development is a continuous process. 2.Children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age. 3.Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_4UN08 copy 32 •Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face. Preview Question 5: How do the parent-infant attachment bonds form? PROBLEMS OF CHILDHOOD •Normal Problems –Overprotection –Sibling Rivalry –Childhood Rebellion –Divorce •Serious Problems –Autism –Toilet Training disturbances –Feeding Disturbances •Overeating •Anorexia Nervousa •Pica • –Speech Disturbances •Delayed speech •Telegraphic speech •Stuttering –Learning Disorders •Dyslexia •ADHD –Conduct Disorders – ADOLESCENCE 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_4UN13 34 •Many psychologists once believed that our traits were set during childhood. Today psychologists believe that development is a lifelong process. Adolescence is defined as a life between childhood and adulthood. PUBERTY-BIOLOGICAL EVENT •Girls- 9-12 years old, begin •Boys- 11-14 years •Hormonal changes –Cause rapid physical and sexual maturity •Immature- social experience, intellectual and knowledge • •Identity Formation- puberty- “Time to begin a new self image” • ADOLESCENCE TRANSITION •Adulthood transition –Responsibility for oneself –Independent decisions –Financial independence – • EARLY AND LATE MATURATION •Bodily awareness concerns •Timing of pubertyà may cause dissatisfaction over body •Early maturation for boys is seen positive in society (seen as athletic, self assured…) •Girls seen as less prestige –Poor self image.. (not in middle school) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 38 •Adolescence begins with puberty (sexual maturation). Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). Thus height in females increases before males. Preview Question 9: What physical changes mark adolescence? PRIMARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 39 •During puberty primary sexual characteristics — the reproductive organs and external genitalia — develop rapidly. SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 40 •Also secondary sexual characteristics—the nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop. Pubic hair and armpit hair grow in both sexes. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT 41 •Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient. FRONTAL CORTEX 12673_MyersPsy8e_fig 42 •During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 43 •Adolescents’ ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In particular, they may think about the following: 1.Their own thinking. 2.What others are thinking. 3.What others are thinking about them. 4.How ideals can be reached. They criticize society, parents, and even themselves. Preview Question 10: How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development? DEVELOPING REASONING POWER 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_4UN15 44 •According to Piaget, adolescents can handle abstract problems, i.e., they can perform formal operations. Adolescents can judge good from evil, truth and justice, and think about God in deeper terms. 3 BASIC LEVELS OF MORAL THINKING 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 45 1.Preconventional Morality: Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward. 2.Conventional Morality: By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake. 3.Postconventional Morality: Affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles. MORALITY 46 •As our thinking matures, so does our behavior in that we become less selfish and more caring. People who engage in doing the right thing develop empathy for others and the self-discipline to resist their own impulses. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_Table 47 Preview Question 11: What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence? FORMING AN IDENTITY 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_4UN18 48 •In Western cultures, many adolescents try out different selves before settling into a consistent and comfortable identity. Having such an identity leads to forming close relationships. PARENT AND PEER INFLUENCE 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 49 •Although teens become independent of their parents as they grow older, they nevertheless relate to their parents on a number of things, including religiosity and career choices. Peer approval and relationships are also very important. PARENTS AND TEENS DAVID ELKIND (RESEARCHER) •Hurried Adulthood- parents push kids too much –Causes too much stress • •Parents affect Identity Formation: sometimes creates- conflict –Dating, sex, substance abuse, freedom •Parents should be authoritative- don’t give in or give up ADOLESCENT PERCEPTIONS ELKIND •Imaginary Audiences: teens are preoccupied by imagining audiences- –Concerned that they are being watched –Affects behavior –Kids try to control outside impressions – – EMERGING ADULTHOOD 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 52 •Emerging adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties. Preview Question 12: What is emerging adulthood? ADULTHOOD 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_4UN21 53 •Although adulthood begins sometime after a person’s mid-twenties, defining adulthood into stages is more difficult than defining the stages of childhood or adolescence. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 54 •The peak of physical performance occurs around 20 years of age, after which it declines imperceptibly for most of us. Preview Question 13: What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood? MIDDLE ADULTHOOD 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 55 •Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to decline after the mid-twenties. Around age 50, women go through menopause, and men experience decreased levels of hormones and fertility. Batting performance of Willie Mays. OLD AGE: SENSORY ABILITIES 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 56 •After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks. OLD AGE: MOTOR ABILITIES 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 57 •At age 70, our motor abilities also decline. A 70-year-old is no match for a 20-year-old individual. Fatal accidents also increase around this age. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 58 •Do cognitive abilities like memory, creativity, and intelligence decline with age the same way physical abilities do? Preview Question 14: How do memory and intelligence change with age? AGING AND MEMORY 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 59 •As we age, we remember some things well. These include recent past events and events that happened a decade or two back. However, recalling names becomes increasingly difficult. AGING AND MEMORY 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 60 •Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is recalled better than meaningless material. AGING AND INTELLIGENCE 61 •It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with age, but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) does not. We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly. AGING AND INTELLIGENCE 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 62 •A number of cognitive abilities decline with age. However, vocabulary and general knowledge increase with age. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 63 •Many differences between the young and old are not simply based on physical and cognitive abilities, but may instead be based on life events associated with family, relationships, and work. ADULTHOOD’S AGES AND STAGES 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 64 •Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence of age-bound stages. Mid-life crises at 40 are less likely to occur than crises triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage). Neuroticism scores, 10,000 subjects (McCrae & Costa, 1996). Preview Question 15: What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death? ADULTHOOD’S COMMITMENTS 65 •Love and work are defining themes in adult life. Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a viable future generation. • ADULTHOOD’S COMMITMENTS 66 •Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment. • WELL-BEING ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 67 •Well-being and people’s feelings of satisfaction are stable across the life span. SUCCESSFUL AGING 12673_Myers_Psy_8e_fig 68 DEATH AND DYING 69 •The “normal” range of reactions or grief stages after the death of a loved one varies widely. Grief is more severe if death occurs unexpectedly. People who view their lives with a sense of integrity (in Erikson’s terms) see life as meaningful and worthwhile. • REFLECTIONS ON TWO MAJOR DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES 70 •Researchers who view development as a slow, continuous process are generally those who emphasize experience and learning. Those with a biological perspective, on the other hand, view maturation and development as a series of genetically predisposed steps or stages. These include psychologists like Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson. Continuity and Stages DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES 71 •Lifelong development requires both stability and change. Personality gradually stabilizes as people age. However, this does not mean that our traits do not change over a lifetime. Some temperaments are more stable than others. Stability and Change