Lesson 3a

Linking: Result, Cause; Relation between Result and Cause

 

Links for RESULT:            and (so), and (therefore), and (consequently), so (so that), so…that, such…that

adverbs of RESULT: so, therefore, consequently

 

Links for CAUSE (Gethin 1992: 51) = REASON (Greenbaum & Quirk 1990: 322-323):

as, because, since, for, present participle –ing, past participle –ed (formal)

 

Result

The links so and so that expressing RESULT are used with a comma, and, in spoken English, with a tone change (X so that for PURPOSE is used without a comma or tone change!!!)

 

The link so…that is used either with:

1. adverbs, e.g.:

I had to wait so long that I got really fed up.

2. adjectives (when NOT directly followed by nouns!), e.g.:

The queues were so long that I couldn’t get on one.

3. the four quantitative adjectives much, little, many, and few, which may be used with so…that whether they are followed by nouns or not, e.g.:

There were so many people that the entrance was totally jammed.

Where so…that are separated by only one or two words, that is often left out, i.e. that can be left out in all the three examples above:

I had to wait so long I got really fed up.

The queues were so long I couldn’t get on one.

There were so many people (that) the entrance was totally jammed.

 

The link such…that is used with

1. adjectives directly followed by nouns, e.g.:

There were such long queues that I couldn’t get on one.

2. nouns alone when adjectives like great or tremendous with an abstract meaning can be left out, e.g.:

Cyclists had such an advantage in this sort of traffic that they were moving faster than cars.

3. in phrases similar to b), for example, such a struggle / nuisance / comfort / help that…, e.g.:

The people here have been such a help that the phrase ‘thank you’ seems inadequate.  

In more formal English, so…that can sometimes replace such…that, but only with an adjective directly followed by a / an, e.g.:

Cyclists had so great an advantage that they were moving faster than cars.

The people here have been so great a help that the phrase ‘thank you’ seems inadequate.

 

So can be a connector adverb = conjunct (like therefore and consequently) as well as a link = conjunction. Compare:

1. so as a conjunct:

She’s found that it’s quicker to go to work by bus. So she leaves her car at home and takes a bus every morning.

2. so as a conjunction:

I suddenly noticed I was standing near a bicycle shop, so (I) did the obvious thing.

 

Cause

- as, since, and because can act as links either at the beginning, or in the middle of sentences, e.g.:

As / Because / Since I’m a confirmed optimist(,) I thought I could go to work by bus.

- for can begin a sentence only if this can be linked to what goes before, e.g.:

Cyclists were moving faster than anyone else. For they had a tremendous advantage in this sort of traffic.

Otherwise there is little difference between these four links except when we are responding to the question Why…? Then only because is possible, e.g.:

He didn’t marry her because she had money; he married her because he loved her.

- here the question is WHY did he marry her?; there are no commas and no corresponding tone change before because

X

In the following sentence, we are answering the question Did he marry her? (NOT the question *Why didn’t he marry her?) and thus there is an optional comma and always a tone change:

No, he didn’t marry her(,) because / as / for / since she had no money.

 

 

References:

Gethin, H. (1992) Grammar in Context. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, pp. 50-53.