Lesson 9

RELATIVE CLAUSES in a nutshell
defining = restrictive    X    non-defining = non-restrictive

 

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE:

- is used because the sentence would not make sense without it;   it gives essential information that identifies or specifies which person or thing is being talked about => it cannot be left out => there are no commas

- which or that to refer to things

- who(m) or that to refer to people

- the relative pronouns which, that and who can be left out of the relative clause if they function as    an object within the relative clause => the subject of the relative clause is expressed by another NP:

The kind of music (which/that) I like is hard to describe.

 

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE:

- gives additional or interesting information about people or things; this information is not essential and thus the sentence has a clear meaning even without the relative clause => it can be left out => is between commas or a comma and a full stop:

My car, which I only bought a month ago, has broken down.

- which to refer to things

- who to refer to people

- that is not used in a non-defining relative clause

- the relative pronouns which and who cannot be left out even if they function as an object within the relative clause

 

SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

= which for facts, situations and actions

- which can be used to link a whole sentence describing a fact, situation or action with a comment on that fact, situation or action:

They lost the game, which disappointed their supporters. =  ‘they lost the game’ is a full sentence; the relative clause refers to it and comments on it   

 

 

 

 

where

- to refer to places in both defining and non-defining relative clauses

- cannot be left out

In the part of the city where I live, nothing interesting ever happens.

The hotel, where I had stayed previously, was excellent.

 

when

- to refer to times in both defining and non-defining relative clauses

- it is possible to leave when out of a defining relative clause but do not leave it out of a non-defining relative clause

This is the time of year (when) the tourists start to arrive.

At this time of year, when the tourists have left, this place is lovely.

 

whose + noun

- used as a possessive form in both defining and non-defining relative clauses

She is a writer whose books I always like to read.

Lucy, whose address I don’t know, lives somewhere outside the city centre.

- with whose the antecedent is usually personal (a writer, Lucy) but can also be nonpersonal:

That is the hospital whose phone number I gave you.

- instead of whose, referring to things only, we can use ‘the noun + of which’ structure:

That is the hospital the phone number of which I gave you.

He’s written a book the name of which I’ve forgotten. =           

He’s written a book whose name I’ve forgotten.

 

that and zero cannot be preceded by a preposition:

The man who(m) / that / - I spoke to is a neighbour.

X

The man to whom I spoke is a neighbour.

 

The play which / that / - I was attracted to is new to London.

X

The play to which I was attracted is new to London.

 

To sum up: There are NO commas in defining relative clauses and we can use all the relative pronouns in them.

We have to use COMMAS in non-defining relative clauses and we cannot use the relative pronouns that and zero in them.