PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION evropský sociální fond v ČR EVROPSKÁ UNIE MINI STE RSTVO S KO LSTVI, op Vzdělávání MLÁDEŽE A TĚLOVÝCHOVY pra konkurenceschopnost INVESTICE DO ROZVOJE VZDĚLÁVÁNÍ Tento studijní text vznikl v rámci projektu ESF „Inovace výuky komunikativních dovedností vangličtině",CZ.1.07/2.2.00/07.0029. 1 m v-, • w IMVESTICE DOftŮZVOJÉ VZDÉLAtíW Contents 1 Part I................................................................................................................................................6 1.1 Communication, Models of Communication, Leadership and Communication, Communication Skills..........................................................................................................................6 1.1.1 What is communication?.................................................................................................6 1.1.2 Models of communication..............................................................................................7 1.1.3 Communication and Leadership......................................................................................8 1.1.4 Leaders vs. Managers......................................................................................................9 1.1.5 Communication Skills......................................................................................................9 1.2 Communication and Context. Coding, Decoding, Message. Ambiguity of Language. Communication Process. Communication Channels. Selecting Appropriate Channels....................10 1.2.1 Communication models revisited. Context...................................................................10 1.2.2 Communication Process. Coding, decoding, message..................................................10 1.2.3 Ambiguity......................................................................................................................12 1.2.4 Communication Channels..............................................................................................13 1.3 Communication Channels Case Study: E-mails.....................................................................15 1.3.1 When?...........................................................................................................................15 1.3.2 How?..............................................................................................................................15 1.3.3 When and how not........................................................................................................15 1.3.4 Attachments..................................................................................................................16 1.3.5 Abbreviations................................................................................................................16 1.4 Non-verbal Communication..................................................................................................17 1.4.1 Definition.......................................................................................................................17 1.5 Communication and Diversity. Intercultural Communication..............................................21 1.5.1 Diversity.........................................................................................................................21 1.5.2 Culture...........................................................................................................................21 1.5.3 Intercultural Communication........................................................................................23 IT bj«—i ~ INYESDCE DOflOMJE *2D£UWW 1.5.4 Barriers to Intercultural Communication......................................................................23 1.5.5 Culture shock.................................................................................................................23 1.5.6 Dealing with difference and diversity............................................................................23 1.6 Communication and Power...................................................................................................24 1.6.1 Power.............................................................................................................................24 1.6.2 Empowerment...............................................................................................................24 1.6.3 Powerful and Powerless Talk.........................................................................................24 1.6.4 Powerful Talk.................................................................................................................25 1.6.5 Powerless Talk...............................................................................................................25 1.6.6 Public Communication...................................................................................................25 1.6.7 Persuasive Campaigns...................................................................................................26 1.7 Presentations.........................................................................................................................27 1.7.1 Why presentations........................................................................................................27 1.7.2 Presentation..................................................................................................................27 1.7.3 Presentation Stages.......................................................................................................28 1.7.4 Preparation....................................................................................................................28 1.7.5 Organization..................................................................................................................28 1.7.6 AIDA Principle................................................................................................................29 1.7.7 Presentations in English................................................................................................29 1.8 PRAGMATICS.........................................................................................................................31 1.8.1 Theories.........................................................................................................................31 1.8.2 Context..........................................................................................................................31 1.8.3 Fields of study................................................................................................................31 1.8.4 Basic terms....................................................................................................................32 1.8.5 Implicitness....................................................................................................................32 1.8.6 Presupposition...............................................................................................................33 IvCn EvflOraAmE .---- INVESTCE DO ROZVCUE VZDCLAvArf 1.8.7 Entailment.....................................................................................................................33 1.8.8 Implicative - Inference.................................................................................................33 1.8.9 Speech act theory..........................................................................................................34 1.8.10 Cooperative and politeness principles..........................................................................34 1.8.11 Deixis.............................................................................................................................34 1.8.12 Hedging..........................................................................................................................35 1.9 Conversational Styles. Conversational Signals and Devices. Conversational Strategies: Indirectness. Framing and Refraining. Power and Solidarity............................................................36 1.9.1 Conversational Styles....................................................................................................36 1.9.2 Conversational Signals and Devices..............................................................................37 1.9.3 Conversational/Communicational Strategies................................................................37 1.10 Indirection, Framing, Power and Solidarity in Communication............................................38 1.11 Discourse Analysis. Ideology and Communication................................................................39 1.11.1 Discourse.......................................................................................................................39 1.11.2 Discourse structures......................................................................................................40 1.11.3 Context..........................................................................................................................40 1.11.4 Persuasion.....................................................................................................................40 1.11.5 Legitimation...................................................................................................................40 1.11.6 Politeness......................................................................................................................41 1.12 Critical Discourse Analysis.....................................................................................................41 1.13 Gender Communication: Male and Female Communication Styles.....................................42 1.14 Communication and Influence. Negotiation.........................................................................45 1.14.1 Persuasive techniques...................................................................................................45 1.14.2 Political rhetoric (Max Atkinson)...................................................................................45 1.15 Negotiation............................................................................................................................46 1.16 Communication in Groups and Teams. Meetings.................................................................48 2 Part II.............................................................................................................................................49 2.1 Discussion/Debate.................................................................................................................49 2.2 Meetings................................................................................................................................56 2.3 Presentations.........................................................................................................................58 2.4 Formal letters........................................................................................................................64 2.5 E-mails...................................................................................................................................70 2.6 Abbreviations........................................................................................................................72 1 Parti 1.1 Communication, Models of Communication, Leadership and Communication, Communication Skills 1.1.1 What is communication? Communication is the word we often use in many contexts and situations. But what does it really mean? Do all people mean the same thing when they say 'communication'? And is it a 'thing'? Communication is exchange of information. Some people think it is just one activity among others: the flow of information from one person to another (Axley 1984], same as planning managing etc. For most, however, communication is more than just one activity among others. Communication lies in the center of human existence. Virtually every conscious human activity includes communication, if only at the beginning stage of the activity: someone had to explain to us how to brush our teeth, how to hold a spoon etc. According to dictionaries, communication is 1. the act or process of communicating; the fact of being communicated. 2. the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs. (Webster's College Dictionary]. We will concentrate on the second half of the first meaning mentioned in the dictionary, on the notion of communication being a process. 6 IMVESTCE DORÜZVOJE VZDElJwW Communication is indeed a process - we have to think what to communicate, how to do it, then actually doing it, assessing the response and the effect of communication, it all indicates that communication is not a created as a whole at once but evolves, and changes, during a certain period of time. Therefore we can define communication as the process by which people interactively create, sustain and manage meaning (Conrad and Poole, 1998]. Communication being a process, we can distinguish different ways in which the communication is structured, different models of communication. 1.1.2 Models of communication 1. Action model Communication can be perceived and intended as a linear action: A sender creates (codes] a message and sends it to a receiver who receives it and decodes it Sender -> Message -> Receiver This model sees communication as a simple act of sending information. The sender does not expect or he/she does not get any kind of response or action of the receiver: a student just listens at a lecture, a TV viewer watches TV series. 2. Interaction model However, the sender usually wants the receiver to react, and the receiver's reaction is included in the interaction model. This model already involves an activity of the receiver, nevertheless it shows no reaction to the receiver's activity at the side of the sender. Sender -> Message -> Receiver 7 IMVESDCE DORGZVOJE VZDElJwW 3. Transaction model The transaction model shows more complex nature of communication as it comprises the two-way character of exchanging information: it counts not only on the receiver to act after he/she receives the message, but it also expects a reaction of the sender to the receiver's feedback. feedback Sender /Receiver ^Message Receiver/Sender feedback 4. Complex model All above-mentioned models do not take into consideration one very important aspect of communication, an aspect that can be crucial for communication, and that is represented by context in which the act of communication happens. No message can be sent without consciously or unconsciously taking into account when and where the communication takes place, who communicates something to whom, etc. context eceiver/Sender feedback Sender /Refceiver %viessage The crucial importance of context to understanding a message, to choosing the right communication channels, and various types of context will be discussed further on in chapters devoted to different aspects of the relationship between the communication and the context. 1.1.3 Communication and Leadership What is leadership? Leadership is a process in which a person (leader] influences through his /her vision a group of people to reach the common goal, which is often some kind of change. From the communication perspective leadership is a special form of human communication, which modifies the attitudes and behavior of others in order to meet shared group goals. (Hackman and Johnson, 2004]. 8 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZDElJtoW 1.1.4 Leaders vs. Managers Leaders - vision, change Managers - immediate goals, status quo A good leader should be a good manager and vice versa. 1.1.5 Communication Skills Written and Oral, Active Listening and Active Reading Functional (processing information, making decisions, constructing logical arguments, reasoning etc] Emotional (perception and expression of emotion, attending the emotions of others, using emotions to facilitate thinking, regulation of emotions] Social (social roles, social status, group interaction] 9 IMVESTCE DOftÜZVOJE VZDElAöW 1.2 Communication and Context. Coding, Decoding, Message. Ambiguity of Language. Communication Process. Communication Channels. Selecting Appropriate Channels 1.2.1 Communication models revisited. Context When we talked about communication models, we described three basic types: from a simple action model (sender - message - receiver] to transactional model (sender/receiver - message -receiver/sender]. However, these models do not take into account one important thing, which is an integral part of any communication: context It is difficult to characterize context in one definition as context is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. In communication we can say that context is everything that surrounds the communication, that it is the environment in which communication takes place and which exercises an immense influence on every communication act We can distinguish different types of context: situational context, pragmatic context, cultural context, language context, literary context, to name just a few. 1.2.2 Communication Process. Coding, decoding, message When sender sends a message he/she has to select a code in which to send a message. The codes vary from simple ones (yellow flag on a ship meaning infectious disease on board] to very elaborate ones (language]. Language has a special position in coding as even if we do not use language as a primary code, we usually convert that code into language if only mentally. coding decoding Sender -> Message -> Receiver In some cases it is clear: Native Americans when they used smoke signals as a code they interpreted it "Buffalos here" "Enemy is approaching" in words. But even if we see a painting or watch a film we can convert (and in most cases we do] the visual images into words if only in our minds (Last Supper = people are sitting at the table, they are eating etc.] 10 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZD&JtoW Selecting a proper code for a particular communication act is crucial for the result of communication. If the sender selects a wrong code the receiver will not be able to decode it and communication ends in misunderstanding or even disaster. 1. 2. 3. ^^^^ i Im In an ideal situation decoding will be the same process as coding only reverted. However, this hardly ever happens as sender and receiver usually have different cultural, educational, gender, generation background that influences their perception of the encoded message. The various obstacles to clear communication are called interferences. Interference can be physical (bad line on the phone, difficult-to-read handwriting, sender-speaker is too distant from receiver-listener] or mental (different language, different life experience, different cultural background]. picture: complexity of communication process odel + context = interference It means we have to pay attention to choosing a proper and appropriate code for each message. We have to take into consideration the personality of the receiver (age, gender, educational and cultural background etc.] as well as possible interferences. 11 IMVESTICE DOftQZVOJÉ VZDÉLAflW 1.2.3 Ambiguity Ambiguity of a message is one of the main obstacles - interferences to good communication, and as the code is language, we can speak about ambiguity of language. To help understand the difference between the two following sentences we have to write them correctly, with or without commas, or to pronounce them correctly, making or not making a pause after the words Science and classes. (1] The students of Political Science, who were absent in most classes, failed the test. (2] The students of Political Science who were absent in most classes failed the test. In the first sentence (1] we mean all students of Political Science. One of their additional characteristics is that they were absent in most classes, the information is added by the way, as an afterthought, it is not relevant for the main meaning of the sentence. In grammatical sense, we call such inserted sentences non-defining relative clauses. In the second sentence (2] not all students failed the test, but only those who were absent in most classes. The ambiguity of language is clarified in writing by punctuation (commas in the case mentioned above], or in speech by using prosodic features as stress or, as in this case, pause. house Secondary messages, metamessages (Tannen] No message is also a message Why ambiguity? - save face, politeness, politics, advertisement - creativity 12 m v., • w INVESTCE DO ROZVOJE VZDEUMrW 1.2.4 Communication Channels An integral part of the communication process is choosing an appropriate communication channel. When we are choosing an appropriate code for our message, we also have to think about how to get the message to the receiver, in other words we have to think about the communication channel we would use. The selection of a com. channel can be characterized as a choice of a medium: fax, phone conversation, email, official letter etc. Which cc were used in your com. acts? Appropriateness of the channel chosen: objectives of the sender attributes of the channel the characteristics of the receivers] Which cc are used at Palacký Un.? Are they appropriate? 13 m v-, • w IMVESTCE DOftŮZVOJÉ VZDÉLAflW 14 VČTI M^H'ni INVESTICE DOflŮZVOJE VZDELÁVA 1.3 Communication Channels Case Study: E-mails 1.3.1 When? Advantages: Brief • Fast • Informal • To more people • Economica 1.3.2 How? • Correct address • Subject • Greeting • Brief message, clear formulation • Expected reaction • Signature 1.3.3 When and how not • High-impact news • Confidential information • Expected reading time: urgent messages • Angry e-mails • Emoticons 15 Iff H ^ Sf INYESnCE DOftOZVOJE VZD£l>VA« 1.3.4 Attachments • Size • Saved files • Forwarded messages (hoax, chain letters, fake virus warnings] 1.3.5 Abbreviations • ASAP = as soon as possible • BTW = by the way • FAQ = frequently asked questions • FYI = for your information • TIA = thanks in advance • TY = thank you • WTG = way to go • PLS = please WVESTCE DO RQZVOJE VZDElWAf* 1.4 Non-verbal Communication 1.4.1 Definition All communication other than that involving words and language (Bennett and Slater, 2008] However, this definition includes even such things as animal communication, artwork (film, painting, photography] but also working environment, where a person lives, school he/she went to etc., so we will concentrate on more personal level of communication, the bodily communication, traditionally called body language. We have to bear in mind that body language often varies from culture to culture: Bulgarian nodding means NO, a female keeping an eye contact with a male in an Arab country is considered provocative etc. Paralanguage prosodic features (the way we speak] volume, pitch, intonation, speed of delivery, articulation, rhythm sounds other than language grimaces including laughter and crying pauses filled ("eh", "mmm"] and unfilled 17 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZDElJtoW Physical Appearance hair clothing accessories tattoos piercing • Body movement (kinesics) Gestures, facial expressions, posture, head nodding gestures j— r- Emblems (gestures with specific meaning "Kalousek is number 1"] \\ Illustrators (gestures reinforce the words of a speaker] (Adapters (almost unconscious, relieve stress or boredom] :ial expressions posture yead nodding Touching (haptics) physical contact such as holding touching shaking hands kissing Even extended to our personal belongings or space. 18 Hfrr-I "^r Closeness (proxemics) Personal space Different in different cultures (Asia x Europe,US] personal space MOM BESTIES SIGNIFICANT OTHER isttier colleagues isttier friends 2nd tier relatives incredibly hot strangers helpful sales rep strang ersw/o bo on public transportation strang ersw/o bo when i'm drunk acquaintances random pedestriansw/o bo unpleasant looking strangers unhelpful sales rep annoying flyer ppl onthe street noisytolirists annoying drunks crying babies dogs strangersw bo rude condescending aggressive ppl conniving backstabberswho would sell out their birth motherto get ahead violent ppl (domestic) useless peeps with no drive. no ambition. 0 real contribution to society bad attitude and wait for others to clean up the messthey created serial killers & rapists irresponsible parents child pornographer I question god whether there's a hidden meaning to their existence 19 INVESTCE DOftOZvOJt: VZDElJftuW • Eye contact (occulesics) eye movement length direction of gaze or stare • Smell (alfactics) personal (perfumes, deodorants] environmental (domestic, commercial environments] Often underestimated, this is also an important part of body language. Everyone has smells he/she likes and smells he/she dislikes. Usage of perfumes and deodorants. Usage of smells in domestic and commercial environments. 20 IMVESTCE fXfftÜZVOJE VZDElAöW 1.5 Communication and Diversity. Intercultural Communication 1.5.1 Diversity We live in a diverse world. All efforts of unification have failed so far. we embrace diversity. In fact, even multinational companies have to adjust to the culture: MacDonald's in India, Japanese firm asking their employees to start work by doing exercise, etc. 1.5.2 Culture Models of culture 1. Iceberg model 21 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZOELAflW 2. Onion model Cor* Beliefs & Commonly Held Assumption! 22 IMVESTCE DOftOZVOJE VZDELAtfW 1.5.3 Intercultural Communication Let's come back to the communication model. We identified different cultural contexts as one of the most common obstacle, or interference, to good communication. 1.5.4 Barriers to Intercultural Communication Attitude ('everyone should speak Czech while in the Czech Republic', ethnocentric approach] Decoding (different ways of decoding]: Perception and interpretation: perception checking, efficient listening, giving feedback Stereotypes (generalization necessary, s.= fixed idea or image, if too rigid - barrier to effective communication] 1.5.5 Culture shock What is culture shock - gradual process, physical and mental symptoms Phases of culture shock 1.5.6 Dealing with difference and diversity Adaptability, high tolerance for ambiguity, openness Cultural learning, managing diversity 23 Rfč m v-, • w IMVESTICE DOftQZVOJÉ VZDÉLAflW 1.6 Communication and Power 1.6.1 Power = the ability to influence others (Hackman and Johnson] = the capacity to translate intention into reality and sustain it (Bennis and Nanus] Sources of power: • coercive power (punishment, negative reinforcement] • reward power (money, benefits, support] • legitimate power (position] • expert power (knowledge] • referent power (role model] 1.6.2 Empowerment = sharing power with others increases the job satisfaction and performance fosters greater cooperation collective survival personal growth and learning prevents power abuses Empowerment process: modifying environment, supplying resources, building sense of personal power 1.6.3 Powerful and Powerless Talk standard language • inappropriate language can reduce perceived power 24 IMVESTCE DOftÜZVOJE VZDElAöW 1.6.4 Powerful Talk • confident • knowledgeable • the "right" language - fit for the ocassion, audience etc. 1.6.5 Powerless Talk • Hesitations (well, ah, you know] • Hedges (I think, I guess] • Tag questions (isn't it?] • Disclaimers (Don't get me wrong, but...; I know this sounds crazy, but...] • Accounts (excuses, justifications: It was an accident, I wasn't ready for the test because...] • Side particles (like, simply, that is] 1.6.6 Public Communication Public relations: • working with media representatives • researching public attitudes • disseminating financial information • lobbying government agencies • publicizing company events • creating internatl communication programs • supporting marketing programs • maintaining positive relationships with community groups • advising top management • responding to customer concerns • fund raising • planning promotional events • writing and delivering speeches and presentations • organizing persuasive campaigns 25 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZOEUMW 1.6.7 Persuasive Campaigns • Situation analysis (audience, idea/product, competition] • Objectives (mission, goals, outcome] • Strategies (messages, media, presentation activities] • Budget (labor, material, media, talent, production] • Implementation (timing, follow-up] • Evaluation (what people say, think, do] 26 BB W, £ W IWESTlCEDOftO£^Oj£v2D£L>wW 1.7 Presentations 1.7.1 Why presentations • To communicate results • To presuade • To sell • General characteristics of a presentation • Presentation stages • Presenting in English 1.7.2 Presentation = special type of public speaking To introduce ideas, to inform, to persuade Objectives of a presentation (Ludlow and Panton] • demonstrate • create • entertain sell • represent • promote • suggest 27 NYEST1CE DO ROZvOJE VZDEL*wW 1.7.3 Presentation Stages • Preparation • Organization • Practice • Delivery 1.7.4 Preparation • Content • Venue • Audience 1.7.5 Organization • Structure: AIDA principle (Wieke] Organizational pattern (O'Hair, Rubenstein and Stewart] • Outline Visual aids 28 INVESTICE DO ftOZVOJE VZDĚLÁVÁM 1.7.6 AIDA Principle - in direct marketing Attention Action Interest Desire Practice PRACTICE!!! Delivery • Speech, speech anxiety Body language (O'Hair, Rubenstein and Stewart] - facial expression - smile - eye contact - gestures - body movement - dress 1.7.7 Presentations in English • International Express Intermediate. New Edition. (Harding and Taylor] • Působivá prezentace a přednáška v angličtině (Klarer] 29 baF^aF I Hod v CR fiMP&JuNt —i i i BWESTtCE DO ROZVOJE VZDéLWÍW Speaking Advanced (Black, McNorton, Malderez and Parker] 30 IMVESTCE DOftQZVOJE VZOEUMW 1.8 PRAGMATICS Studies in the invisible meaning relationship of signs to their interpreters (meaning as communicated by sender and interpreted by receiver] 1.8.1 Theories Speech act theory (J. Austin] Co-operative principle = conversational implicature (P. Grice] Conversational Analysis (D. Tannen] Cross-cultural pragmatics (A. Wierzbicka] 1.8.2 Context • verbal • situational • pragmatic 1.8.3 Fields of study • Pragmalinguistics (linguistic pragmatics] • Non-linguistic pragmatics: - specific knowledge of a person - general knowledge of frames (structures] school-frame, hospital-frame • Inter-language pragmatics culture 'bumps' 31 INVESTCE DOftOZvOJt: VZDElJftuW 1.8.4 Basic terms • Implicitness • Presupposion and entailment • Implicative and inference • Locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts • Illocutionary force and proposition • Co-operative principle and maxims • Politeness principle • Deixis • Hedging 1.8.5 Implicitness • How to decode what is meant from what is said • Roles of implicitness (Verschueren] • impossibility of complete explicitness • conventional means for conveying implicit meaning • strategic avoidance of explicitness 32 IMVESDCE DOftOZVOJE VZDELAflW 1.8.6 Presupposition = something sender assumes to exist prior to the act of communication Types: Existential Factive Non-factive Counter-factual Lexical Structural example the girl next door I regret he's left I pretended to be there If I weren't ill He managed to escape Where did you buy it? presupposition girl exists he's left I was not there I was ill He tried + succeeded You bought something 1.8.7 Entailment = something what we assume after the act of communication So are dogs, (evaluation) The garbage can is full (demand) 1.8.8 Implicature - Inference Implicature = implicit meaning by which more is communicated than said Inference = process by which you can arrive to implicit meaning of an expression sender -> implicature -> MESSAGE <- inference <- recipient 33 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZDELAflW 1.8.9 Speech act theory • Locutionary act - act of saying (sounds, words, structure] • Illocutionary act - intention • Perlocutionary act - actual effect achieved Illocutionary force = intention/action Proposition = content of the speech act The exam period is approaching. - information - threat - promise 1.8.10 Cooperative and politeness principles • Cooperative principle (Grice] - assumption: both parties co-operate in communication Maxims: quantity, quality, relation/relevance, manner • Politeness principle (Leech] - to maintain the friendly relations 1.8.11 Deixis = pointing through language • Personal you, me 34 imvestce DOftÜZVOJE VZDElAöW Spacial here, there Temporal now, then Social tu/Usted, ty/vy Discourse as mentioned before 1.8.12 Hedging = strategy to mitigate and soften the IF of the utterances in order to protect oneself from potential infavourable judgements (avoid losing the face] Well, I think To tell the truth kind of sort of ... or something like that 35 IMVESTICE DORÜZVOJE VZDEUwW 1.9 Conversational Styles. Conversational Signals and Devices. Conversational Strategies: Indirectness. Framing and Reframing. Power and Solidarity 1.9.1 Conversational Styles Each individual has his/her own communication and conversational styles. However, there are certain patterns we can observe, and that can help us to distinguish several types of conversational styles. In the 1980s and 1990s Deborah Tannen was one of the founders of conversational analysis, a field of study that analyses everyday conversations and focuses on their importance for human relationships both in personal and professional lives. There are two conflicting tendencies that are more or less present in every communication act: Tendency towards involvement and tendency towards independence. When communicating, we are driven to show our involvement in the communication exchange, we want to appear as being friendly or at least as being polite, however, there is also an opposite force that wants us to preserve our independence as individuals. These two tendencies result in two conversational styles: one is characterized by overlapping of communication exchanges (shows involvement] and the second one by turn-taking: the exchanges take place one at a time (respects independence of each participant of the communication]. The interaction and sometimes also clashes of these tendencies will be further discussed in chapters dealing with male and female communication styles and with power -solidarity relations in communication and language. 36 1.9.2 Conversational Signals and Devices Conversational signals tell the receiver important facts about personality and attitude of the sender. They show the level of formality, how serious we consider the situation. The main signals are shown in intonation: pacing and pausing pitch, word and sentence stress, and loudness of our speech. These signals are used in conversational devices which show to what extent we are involved in conversation, whether we are paying attention, listening showing that we share the feelings with the speaker. Tannen (1986] distinguishes four conversational devices: expressive reaction, asking questions, complaining and apologizing. Expressions like "Oh, really?" "Do you think so?" "What did you tell him?" "What a terrible day!" "I will have to go there, I'm afraid." are used to indicate that we are interested in what our communication partner says. Failing in using them classifies the speaker as a less friendly, inattentive, sometimes even impolite and rude. Again, using the above mentioned devices in connection with relations of power and solidarity will be discussed more in the following chapters (and see also powerful/powerless talk]. 1.9.3 Conversational/Communicational Strategies When communicating, we use different strategies to achieve our goals - to persuade someone to do something to avoid doing something to show or hide our feelings and so on. The basic conversational (as Tannen called them], or communicational strategies (as they are generally called now] are indirection, framing, and strategies expressing power and solidarity. Choosing the right communication strategy is crucial for the positive outcome of a communication exchange, so we will devote the next chapter to analyzing their usage and appropriateness in different communication situations. 1.10 Indirection, Framing, Power and Solidarity in Communication Indirection, framing and expressing power and solidarity relations are communicational strategies used in order to achieve our communicational goals: to communicate a sad news in a thoughtful and tactful way, to persuade someone to do something he/she did not want to do, to make someone laugh and so lift his/her spirit, and so on. Framing Framing means understanding meaning through contextualization, in other words, it means putting the message into a particular social, cultural, pragmatic etc. context Each communication act has a certain frame which we negotiate during the discourse: For example at a family gathering we talk about family matters (family frame], but then two medical doctors present start discussing the illness of a family member and switch the frame to a medical one. It is important to negotiate the frame at the beginning of the communication act as using a different frame can create misunderstanding, put one or both participants in awkward situations, or turn a serious message into unwanted joke. Footing Another important strategy in communication is footing: positioning of a sender with regard to the others: At a public meeting of the academic senate: Instructor to students: I say: Please, listen to what the dean says. You should remember the changes in the examination procedure, (instructor excludes himself/herself from the group] If you do not comply with the rules, we are in trouble, (change in footing: instructor included] Excuse me, Mr. XY, are you listening to what is being said? (instructor speaks to one person only] Indirection Verbal indirection a communicational strategy in which participants in a communication act abstain from directness in order to avoid saying the "harsh truth", to communicate a bad news, to soften the imperative and demand, and to make their utterances more polite. 38 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZD&JtoW Face Negotiating frames, footing, and indirection in communication is aimed at saving face. The term face has been introduced in communication by sociolinguists as a borrowed term from psychology and sociology. Each person has a face, sometimes also called a social face, and all communication acts are driven by the effort to protect one's face and save and not harm other person's face when communicating. The two contradictory tendencies we have already discussed, the tendency towards independence, the need to feel respected, to keep one's personal integrity and space, to preserve one's autonomy, and the tendency to inclusion, the need to be viewed as a "nice" person, polite and showing respect to others, are reflected in two faces: the tendency towards independence in the negative face, the tendency towards inclusion in the positive face. Solidarity and power Efforts to protect one's face and save other person's face are an integral part of communication strategies expressing solidarity. Unlike hierarchical social structures connected with power and represented by formal, direct forms of communication, solidarity is connected with equality of the participants of a communication act. 1.11 Discourse Analysis. Ideology and Communication 1.11.1 Discourse Discourse has a special status in communication; it is used not only in everyday situations but also to formulate abstract ideas, beliefs, and opinions. It is an important means of socialization as socialization takes place through discourse. Discourse is a specific communicative event which involves number of communicative actors (Van Dijk]. Discourse has verbal and non-verbal dimensions, it involves various context features. Therefore, we can define discourse as a spoken/written verbal product of the communicative act (Van Dijk] The word discourse can have various meanings: discourse in general sense, as an object of discourse analysis is discourse seen as a form of language use; the concept of discourse can also 39 IMVESTCE DOftQZVOJE VZOEUMW refer to specific genres (political discourse, academic discourse] - set of genres associated with a social domain or field. Political discourse, then, is a term which comprises all discourse genres that are used within the field of politics (pamphlets, billboards, political speeches etc.] Ideology Ideology is a set of ideas, attitudes and beliefs that determines a perspective with which a person should interpret social and political realities around him/her. Ideology is reflected in political and social discourse through various means and structures which will be described further. 1.11.2 Discourse structures • Graphics (bold letters, letter types, whole graphic design suggests how 'important' the message is according to the sender] • Sound (stressing words, mumbling, speaking clearly, loud...] • Morphology (word formation, neologisms: freedom-fighter x terrorist] • Syntax (style - ornate complex sentences x short simple ones, usage of pronouns: us x them: inclusion x confrontation] • Semantics (meanings, interpretation, propositions - most common part of analysis] • Rhetorical structures • Speech acts Schematic structures (greetings, organization of news reports, headlines in newspapers and where the article is situated] Interaction (is the sender really interested in an interaction, how it is supported or suppressed] 1.11.3 Context The importance of context in every discourse 1.11.4 Persuasion Strategies used to influence what, how and in which way people think. 1.11.5 Legitimation Legitimation is one of the main social functions of ideologies (Van Dijk, p. 255]. It is used in order to defend oneself, a group, an idea, to prove that that one (group, idea, person] is the right 40 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZDElJtoW one, that their claim(s] is/are legitimate. It is again used on many levels, especially by institutions. 1.11.6 Politeness We have already described maxims of politeness as stated by Leech, which are used, or should be used in communication in order to maintain friendly relations. Politeness strategies help participants in a communication act to be consistent with face, in other words, to show solidarity while communicating. 1.12 Critical Discourse Analysis Conversational analysis has shown how important everyday conversations are, that what might seem just a meaningless chatter is very important for expressing our interest in other person, our solidarity. Discourse analysis focuses on any piece of discourse, written or spoken. It is a "systematic account of the complex structures and strategies of text and talk as they are actually accomplished .... in their social contexts" (Van Dijk, p. 198] Fairclough Critical discourse analysis (CDA] focuses on using critical thinking in discovering what relationships and intentions are behind the surface level of discourse, what desired effect a discourse should have on receivers. Especially in political discourse, where we would suspect it, but also in publicity and other types of discourse, where it is more hidden, we can see that discourse has an ideological meaning: happy white 4-member family around a table, mother bringing a dish and serving others in a commercial enforces a stereotype of how an 'ideal' family should look like. 41 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZOELAflW 1.13 Gender Communication: Male and Female Communication Styles Stereotypes about men and women: men and women are from different planets, represent different cultures Tendencies to a certain behaviors (hunters x collectors] Male Communication Style Female Power relations Hierarchical, power-based Individual Direct Report Talk In private: "mute men" In public: "talkative men" Expressing concepts More frequent interruptions (Tannen] Solidarity consensus-based Inclusion, sharing Indirect Rapport Talk "talkative women" "silent women" Expressing feelings Active listening Body language To agree To emphasize, extensive nodding gestures in public to show they are listening to be avoided Women is general are more likely to Men often see this as Ask for information Men often think of asking especially in public as an admission of incompetence Negotiate from the outside in i.e. focus on big picture items first and then specific ones Men negotiate inside out i.s. go from specific items to big picture. A female style is seen as an invitation for a decision 42 Consider expression of deep feelings as their opponents expression of something non-negotiable Men just see this a counter move Hedge when making a point Lack of competence Appear humble (as they are often expected to be] Consider women who this to be less confidence View take charge self-presentation as arrogance View take charge self-presentation as confidence Say I'm sorry as a conversational closer even they don't have to Putting oneself down Say thank you to keep the conversational flow egalitarian and except the other to similarly take responsibility/blame when they do so ( a mutual saving face technique] Putting oneself down More likely to soften criticism by pointing out positives in performance or taking blame for not understanding Go straight to the criticism with the view this is business, feeling are not a part of it. I know you are good and thus you can take it and change behavior 43 44 ifJVESTiCE DO PÜZVOJE VZDELÁVA 1.14 Communication and Influence. Negotiation 1.14.1 Persuasive techniques • Simile and metaphor • Extended metaphor • Allusion • Lists of three • Repetition • Parallelism • Puzzled or redundant questions • Alliteration • Wordplay 1.14.2 Political rhetoric (Max Atkinson) Alliteration Allusion Antithesis Asking questions and suggesting answers Lists (especially of three] Metaphor Parallelism Parenthesis Repetition Redundant questioning 45 iM-.-LL: U'Ct ÜÜ f^ÜZVUJb VA.U-V-.V.'. Example: "In the long history of the world only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility; I welcome it I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it, and the glow from that fire can truly light the world. And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country." John F. Kennedy 1.15 Negotiation NEGOTIATION = process of bargaining between two or more parties to reach a solution that is acceptable to all parties (Gibson, 2002] Types of negotiation (Casse and Deol, 1985]: based on 1. Compromise Advantages: overcome problems and move forward faster Disadvantages: frustration after giving something up may lead to a lack of commitment to the final decision 2. Synthesis (all ideas taken into account] Advantages: integration of all ideas into final agreement leads to motivation and commitment Disadvantages: the final decision can involve irrelevant elements which can weaken the outcome of the negotiation and make it questionable 3. Synergy (the result is greater than the sum of the parts] Advantages: outcome is the creative product of the interaction. Win-win situation. Disadvantages: requires a lot of time and a high level of flexibility Stages in negotiation (O'Connor et al, 1992]: • Relationship building • Agreeing procedure 46 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZD&JtoW • Exchanging information • Questioning • Options • Bidding • Bargaining • Settling and concluding Stages differ in different cultures (see communication and culture] Aggressive negotiation tactics (Hard skills] • Character attacks • Background attacks • Insults • Teasing • Ridicule • Profanity • Threats • Competence attacks • Physical appearance attacks • Nonverbal indicators that express hostility (rolling eyes, looks of disgust...] Problem-solving style of negotiation (Soft skills] developed by the Harvard Negotiation Project • Separate the people from the problem (common goal, build trust, defuse strong emotions] • Focus on interests, not positions (interest = reason why the negotiator takes his/her position] • Invent options for mutual gain (brainstorming solutions to meet the ends of both negotiators] • Insist on objective criteria (agree on a set of criteria and determine the terms of the settlement] 47 iNVESTlCE DOftOZvOJE VZDEJjftftW 1.16 Communication in Groups and Teams. Meetings Fundamentals of group interaction People tend to live in groups, and in order to function in a group they need to communicate. Therefore, communication is the essential characteristic of a group. Group characteristics: • A common purpose or goal • Interdependence • Mutual influence • Face-to-face communication (x virtual groups] • Specific size (small groups = 3-20 people] Group evolution (Fisher]: • Orientation phase (members get acquainted with norms of the group - acceptance of a behavior, jokes etc.] • Conflict phase (strong opinions, disagreement] • Emergence phase (towards one/fewer solutions, coalitions forming, dissent disappers] • Reinforcement phase (positive, consensus, solution] For effectiveness necessary: good timing, time to develop, high degree of cohesion and commitment] Working group x team: Working group - members share information, discuss, make decisions - individual products and individual evaluation Team - result is a joint product, unique purpose and clearly defined performance goals (e.g. make project on a certain topic to get credits in the class] 48 Rfč m v-, • w IMVESTICE DOftQZVOJÉ VZDÉLAflW 2 Partii 2.1 Discussion/Debate a) Opinions (S = strong] I. Asking for opinions: What are your views (on ...] What's your opinion (on ...] What do you think (of...] How do you feel (about...] Do you think... II. Giving opinions: I'm (quite] sure (about...] I really do think (that...] From a (financial] point of view... In my opinion... I think (that...] III. Agreeing: Yes, I agree completely. (S] Yes, definitely. (S] I agree. I'd go along with that. Yes, you have a point there... (but] IV. Disagreeing: (In my opinion], that's out of the question. (S] I'm afraid I disagree completely. I'm afraid I can't agree with that idea. Sorry, but I don't agree. I'm afraid that's not how I see it V. Expressing reservations and doubts: 49 H vn Ĺ. W INVFSTtCE DO ROZVOJE VZDÉ1>VW4 I agree up to a point, but. You could be right, but... Maybe, but... b) Advice and suggestions I. Asking for advice and suggestions What would you suggest we do/advice us to do? What do you recommend? I'd like to hear your ideas on this. Do you have any suggestions? Do you think we should...? II. Giving advice and suggestions: I'd recommend/suggest that... My advice would be to ... If I were you I'd ... I think you should ... Have you thought of... Why don't we ... How about... You could ... It might be a good idea to ... III. Accepting: I'm definitely in favor of doing that (S] Yes, I think we should do that. That's an interesting idea. Yes, that sounds like a good idea. Yes, let's do that. IV. Rejecting: I'm sorry, but that's out of the question. I'm afraid I'm not very keen on that idea. 50 gf INVESTtCE DO ROZVCUE VZDeLAVVW I'm not sure about that That's very interesting but... No, I don't think that will work. c) Requests and offers I. Requesting: Agreeing: Could you possibly Yes, certainly. Do you think you could -» Yes, that's no problem. Would you Yes, of course. Could you Yes, I'll do that Can you (I] Would you/do you mind -> No, of course not Not at all. II. Refusing: I'm sorry but that's not possible I'm afraid not I think that shall be very difficult Sorry, but (I] III. Offering: Would you like me to If you like, I can Shall I Do you want me to Would you like Can I get you a drink? (I] Do you need a hand? (I) IV. Accepting: Thanks. I'd appreciate that That's very kind of you. lN^T:£1ir;.[:[X:'t'*O^LiJbVZDajWSM Yes, please. Thanks very much. V. Declining: Thanks, but that won't be necessary. That's very kind of you but Thanks, but please don't bother. d) Asking and responding to difficult questions I. Asking difficult questions: It's sometimes said that It seems that some people think that What do you think might be the reason for that? Is it OK to ask about Do you mind me asking Can I ask you what you think about II. Responding to difficult questions: I'm sorry, I don't want to go into that. I really don't have any opinion on that. Why, what do you think about it? That may be, I couldn't really say. I'm afraid I don't know anything about it. It's not really for me to say. It depends how you look at it. e) Apologies (I have/This is] absolutely no excuse for I accept the blame for I admit that I was wrong I am angry with myself I appreciate your calling our attention to 52 I fell asleep at the wheel/on the job/at the switch (I will try to] avoid this in the future (I agreed that... was a] breach of good manners (I will do my best to] correct the situation (I'd like to] express my regret I feel (very] sorry/terrible/bad about I am not excusing our/my errors, but I am so sorry for I don't know how it happened that I have thoroughly investigated/looked into the manner and I'm sorry you were dissatisfied with It was embarrassing to discover that I was distressed to hear/read/discover/learn that (I want to] make right with you Much to my regret My apologies for any inconvenience I owe you an apology for Please accept my/our apology/apologies for I presumed where I shouldn't have presumed To prevent a recurrence (I'd like to ...] I want to put to rights (what I've done] I reproach myself I sincerely regret/apologize I sorely regret I'm sorry for the inconvenience/confusion/mix-up/misunderstanding The least I can do is To compensate for (the things I've done I'd like to ...] I was under the mistaken impression that (I will try to ... ] until you are completely satisfied We regret to inform our customers that You were entirely right about Sorry, you're absolutely right. I do apologize. I'm sorry, but could we change the time of the meeting? I'm afraid I won't be able to do it straight away. 53 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZD&JtoW Please let me apologize for any inconvenience this may cause you. Please excuse me, but I really have to go now. I. Accepting apologies: It's perfectly all right Sure, no problem. Don't worry about that, it can wait. f) Refusals After much discussion/careful evaluation (I have decided to ...] Although I am sympathetic to your problem /plight/situation (I have decided to ...] Although the idea is (sounds] appealing Appreciate your asking me/us, but Because of prior commitments (I cannot accept...] Beyond the scope of the present study Company policy prohibits us from (accepting...] Current conditions do not warrant This was a difficult decision, but (I've decided to ...] I am disinclined to ... at this time (Your proposal] doesn't qualify/warrant (with ...] I don't have enough information (to give you an answer right away] Due to present budget problems (I am forced to ...] Hope this will be of some help even though ... I appreciate your asking me, but... If it were possible (I'd love to help you] I know how understanding you are, so I'm sure ... I'm sorry to tell you that... I must say no to (your proposal] I regret that I cannot accept (your proposal] It is, unfortunately, out of the question that... It's a wonderful program, but... It's currently impossible to ... 54 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZOELAflW I wish I could say yes, but... I must decline/demur/pass up/withdraw from/say no to ... Normally I would be delighted, but (given the situation ...] This is not a choice I can make right now This is not an option at the moment I am not currently seeking for... No, thank you I am not interested at this time Due to my previous commitments This puts me in something of a dilemma I regret to inform you that... I remain unconvinced of the value of... (The concept] runs counter to I sincerely regret (to inform you that...] I am sorry about this, but... I am unable to help/comply/grant/send/contribute/offer/provide ... We appreciate your interest, but... We find that we cannot... We have concluded with regret that... We have now had a chance to review (the documents] Your idea has merit, but... g) Requests and inquiries (I'd like to request an] additional information/time (I'd like to] answer the following questions I anticipate a favorable response to the ... I'd like to apply/ask for... I will appreciate any information/your cooperation/your help (in the matter of...] (I'd like it to be done] as soon as possible (Could you send me the information] by return mail I count on/upon (the fact that...] (Could you please] direct me to the appropriate agency Will you have the goodness to ... 55 m v., • w IMVESTCE DOftOZVOJE VZDELAtfW I hope you are able to (help me with ...] I'd appreciate having/receiving/obtaining (more information about...] If you can find time in your busy schedule to ... If you think it might be possible I'm writing to ask you... I'm interested in receiving information/learning more about... It would be most helpful (if you could...] I would appreciate your assessment of ... I would be grateful/most grateful if/for (more information ...] I look forward to hearing from you (Could you please] offer some assistance (This was] of great help to us On account of/behalf of (the company] Please call me to discuss the ... Please let me have your estimate by (Friday] Please provide us with/send details about... Please reply by return mail I respectfully request... I will take it into consideration Thank you for your efforts in/to ... (I hope it's not too much] trouble you to/for... We would appreciate your taking a few minutes to (think about...] Would you be willing to/good enough to ... Your considered opinion 2.2 Meetings a) Participating in a meeting or discussion (I = informal] b) Opening: Right. Shall we start? OK. Let's start. (I] 56 I tondvCn CIKKWlhE 17-» 1NVESTCE 00 fcivajt WLiEwvA.*; c) Stating objectives: The aim of this meeting is to In this meeting we need to decide d) Beginning the discussion: [Eric), would you like to start? Could you begin, [Rosa)l e) Moving on: Can we get back on the main point? So, let's move on to the next topic f) Asking for clarification: Sorry, [Rosa), I don't quite follow you. Could you explain what you mean by.. ? Would you mind repeating that? Could you go over that again? g) Interrupting: Could I just ask something? Before you go on, could I say something? Excuse me. Could I come in here? h) Checking agreement: So, are we all in agreement? Do we all agree then? i) Summarizing: So, to sum up We've agreed that j) Concluding: Well, I think that's everything. 57 INVEST CE DO BOZVOJE VZDEUWAH Is there anything else you want to discuss? k) Closing: Good, let's call it a day, then. 2.3 Presentations a) Talks and presentations I. Getting started: Shall we make a start? I think we're all here, so let's get going. II. Introducing the topic: This morning I'm going to Today, I'd like to The aim of my presentation this morning is to I've divided my presentation into .. / My talk will be in.. [three parts). First, I'd like to Second, I'll move on to Then I'll focus on Then I'll go on to In the first part of my talk, I'll be looking at After that we'll deal with Finally, we'll consider And finally we'll take a look at I'd like to begin by introducing myself. I'd like to start by giving you a brief run-down of what I'll be covering today. Before we go on, I'd just like to highlight a few things. I'd like to start outlining the main aims and objectives of this talk. Firstly, let me explain the main aim of presentation. 58 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZDELAtfW Please feel free to interrupt at any point. III. Referring to questions: Feel free to/Do interrupt me if there's anything you don't understand. If you don't mind, we'll leave questions till the end. IV. Introducing each section: So, let's start with Now, let's move on to Let's turn our attention to This leads me to Finally, V. Summarizing a section: That completes my So, to summarize, VI. Moving from topic to topic: Now, if we consider Moving on to the next slide This leads me to the next point So we've seen how X, now let's look at Y. OK, let's move on to the next point Shall we go on to look at... now? VII. Referring: I mentioned earlier I'll say more about this later. We'll come back to this point later. As you know/As I'm sure you are aware VIII. Referring to visual information: 59 BB XV, £ W INVESTlCe DO ROZVOJE VTDĚl>ÍiflW This transparency/diagram shows If you look at this graph you can see What is interesting in this graph is I'd like to draw your attention to If we look at the next slide This slide illustrates how The most important point here is IX. Summarizing: So, what are the main points we've highlighted? Well, firstly OK, let's go over the main points again. To summarize, by focusing on X, we can see that In other words, the key issues to remember are X. Checking understanding: Is that clear? Are there any questions? XI. Concluding: That concludes my talk. That brings be to the end of my presentation. If you have any questions, I'd be pleased/I'll do my best to answer them. Does anyone have any questions? Thank you for your attention. OK, I think this is probably a good time to finish. That just about brings it to an end. Thanks for being such a good audience. XII. Dealing with questions: That's a good point I'm glad you asked that question. Can I get back to you on that later? I'm afraid I don't have .. [the information at present). I'm afraid I'm not the right person to answer that INVESDCE DO R02VOJE VZDEL*wW I'm probably not qualified to answer that Thanks, that's a really interesting point. Yes, that's a valid point but Does anyone else have any views about that? XIII. Asking and giving opinions: What do you think about that? Jo, have you any reaction to that? What are your views on that? The way I see it is that Don't you think it might be better if What about From a... point of view I really think (we should] XIV. Polite disagreement: I'm not so sure about that. I think we're losing sight of the main point I agree with you when you saybut... You have an interesting point there, however I quite understand what you're saying, but I'm afraid that's not how I see it b) Acceptances (I'm glad that I'm ] able to say yes I accept with pleasure (I'd be more than happy to] agree to I'm glad to be able to vote yes I'm happy to let you know I am pleased/happy/honored to accept It is with great pleasure that It was so thoughtful of you to It will be a pleasure to I'm pleased to have been invited 61 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZOELAflW Thank you for asking me to Thank you for nominating me for We are delighted to accept We are sincerely happy to join you We have accepted your bid of We look forward with pleasure c) Clarification and showing understanding I. Showing that you're following and you're understanding: I see (what you mean]. Right Yeah. Exactly. Really? Oh, I didn't know that. II. Getting clarification: So you mean that So basically what you're saying is If I understand correctly I'm not sure what you mean by What does 'X' mean in this context? Just so that I'm clear Could you be more specific? III. Paraphrasing and clarifying: OK, what I'm trying to say is Let me explain what I mean. By X, I mean or more specifically The idea would be that Well, let me put it another way. In other words,.. Or rather,.. 62 INVESTICE DOftOZVOJE VZDCUvArf IV. Responding to clarification: i. Positive: Exactly. Precisely. Yes. ii. Vague: Sort of. Kind of. Yes, I suppose so. Not really. It depends. iii. Negative: No, that's not really what I meant No, what I was trying to say was V. Showing understanding: You said there was no difference between X and Y, right? I see what you mean. But couldn't we OK, they want... I suppose. So, this is really an example of So, in that case you have to Right, OK. VI. Checking another person's understanding: Are you with me? Do you see what I mean? Does that seem to make sense? Does that answer your question? Is that any clearer? VII. Emphasizing / Summarizing: INYESTICE DO ftOaOJE VZD£L*wW I'd like to stress that So, essentially The point is d) Initiating, changing, and returning to a topic I. Initiating a topic: What about What is your view on I'd like to start by Can we talk about what happened this morning? Have I told you about I hear that II. Changing a topic: By the way, have you seen the latest figures on Just to change the subject for a minute, what do you think about That reminds me, did you see I've just thought of something else Sorry to interrupt, I just need to tell you about III. Returning to a topic: But going back to what you said earlier As I was saying earlier I've been thinking about what you said and Can we go over what we talked about earlier? Just to return to 2.4 Formal letters a) Reports and proposals Aconsiderable/significant/important advantage is... Address the problem of 64 m v., • w IMVESTCE DOftOZVOJE VZDELAtfW Along these lines (you will find...] (The product is...] as you can see from the data Close/exhaustive inquiry (shows that...] (I enclose a] copy of the proceedings The detailed statement (proves that...] Educated guess (of the experts shows that...] Estimated value (of the product is ...] Give our position on (the market, we can afford to ...] In-depth account of/look at Institute inquiries (prove that...] Map out The matter at hand/in dispute/under discussion/at issue... Planning stages (of this problem are ...] The plan of action is to ... Rough computation/calculation/draft/guess (shows that...] This summarizes the progress of... Supplies/offers/provides some distinct advantages (I'd like to] take into consideration (the outcome of the inquiry] Take measures/steps (we are going to make/take are ...] Under consideration/discussion (of all the important points, we came to the agreement that...] b) Cover letters I'd like to acquaint you with As promised (I am writing to you about...] (I'm writing to you] at your request (about] I'm writing about the brochure that presents/details/describes/outlines/explains Call with questions I'm attaching a complimentary copy of... Please direct your attention to Enclosed is/are(the promised documents] For further information (go to the website ...] Here are/is I am sending you 65 If you need/want additional information (contact Mr....] I'm also enclosing I'm writing in response to your advertisement Please note that This is just a rough draft (of) c) Letters of application I am applying for the position of I can arrange a meeting at your convenience I have experience that qualifies me for I have extensive experience with I am a good candidate/match for the job (I am writing] in response to your advertisement I am interested in pursuing a career with May I have fifteen minutes of your time to discuss ... (I think] I meet (and exceed] your criteria I have serious interest in This job is similar to my most recent position I have skills that would be useful to I have ten years' experience with I am well suited for (this position] d) Complaints There was a mix up in my order I am appealing to you for help Are you aware that As a longtime customer I would like to call to your immediate attention I'd like to correct your records Deceptive advertising (The ...] was defective upon arrival (and I'd like to return it] 66 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZDELAtfW This does not meet our performance standards I expect to hear from you soon (Because of the] expensive maintenance (of... I'd like to return it] It has not met my expectations (and I'd like to return it] I hope to resolve this problem (as soon as possible] I am concerned about I feel certain you would want to know that Inefficient design (is one of the main reasons I am not satisfied with this product] It has come to my attention that It is with reluctance that I must inform you It was disconcerting to find that I was displeased/distressed/disturbed/offended/disappointed by I wish to be reimbursed for (the faulty product] I would like to alert you to You may not be aware that The performance was not up to your usual high standards I'd like to register a complaint about This is a serious omission/problem (and it should be solved immediately] (I'd like to return this product] under the conditions of the warranty This unpleasant incident (is the reason why we are forced to ...] (We are sorry to inform you about your] unsatisfactory performance We were unhappy with ... You have generally given us excellent service, but e) Letters of disagreement I agree to differ/disagree As I understand it At cross-purposes (I think this is] at odds with (the law] I believe you should know that The bone of contention (is in our different point of views] (Can we] bury the hatchet (and be friends again?] (I'd like to] come to terms (with your ideas, but] 67 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZOELAflW This complicated situation (made me rethink our agreement] I'd like to conduct an inquiry about (Because of our] different opinions (I can no longer work at this firm] Direct your attention to (this problem] The disputed point is ... Do a disservice to I fail to agree (with your ideas] I am convinced that (this solution will work] I assume/presume/think/have no doubt that (this is the right choice] I have the impression that... In my estimation/judgment/opinion/view... In the best interest of (the firm] I take it that (you completely disagree] It seems to me (that the firm is going the wrong way] Matter/point in dispute/at issue/under discussion/in question My information is (very relevant to this problem] Part company with (I'd like to] register my opinion (on ...] I strongly oppose I will take this into consideration (I fear that I] think differently (of this matter] (This doesn't add up) to my way of thinking To the best of my knowledge I wonder if you are aware that... f) Explaining the reasons for writing: I am writing to enquire about/inform you that/confirm g) Making reference: With reference to your fax of (10 June] Thank you for your letter of Further to your telephone enquiry h) Apologizing: 68 ^Bf as* I IWfcS'Kifc LXJ' "O/VO-JL VZL'tlL''-.7A-". I am sorry I apologize i) Requesting: We would appreciate it if you would Could you please Please... j) Agreeing to requests: I would be pleased to/delighted tell you that k) Giving good news: I am pleased to inform you that I am delighted to tell you that 1) Giving bad news: I am afraid Unfortunately m) Explaining reasons: This is the result of/due to n) Enclosing documents: I enclose ... (a copy of my book] Please find enclosed o) Closing remarks: Please contact us again if Please let me know if Please pass on my best wishes to Please give our kind regards to p) Referring to future contact: I look forward to 69 IMVESDCE DOftGZVOJE VZOELAflW I very much look forward to Looking forward to 2.5 E-mails (I'd like to] alert you to the possibility (of...] (I'd like to] ask your help (on...] Do you know (that...] For your information... Here are (the promised documents] (You will find the] Information you wanted/requested (in the enclosed documents] In answer to your question ... Just a note to let you know Please let me know ASAP (= as soon as possible] Send me a copy of... I wanted to follow up on ... Will you please send me (the promised documents] a) Greeting: Dear.. Hi/Hello b) Introductory remarks: It was so good to (talk to you yesterday] Sorry for not getting back to you earlier Sorry for the delay in replying c) Explaining the reason for writing: This is just to (let you know] I just wanted to d) Requesting: 70 IMVESDCE DORGZVOJE VZDElJwW Could you Can you Would you mind e) Giving news: Thought you'd like to know Just to let you know f) Acknowledging an email: Thanks for (the report on ...] g) Agreeing to request: I'll (send you the report today] h) Attaching documents: Here is I've attached Attached is i] Referring to future contact: Looking forward to j) Signing off: Yours Kind regards Regards Best wishes Best ... (Dave] Informally, you can also just sign off with your first name. k) Saying an email address: Ivan_Marks@cyberserve.com 71 I tondvCn MWWihE NvESnCE DOflOZVOJE VZDEUWA** Ivan underscore Marks at cyberserve dot com 2.6 Abbreviations asap as soon as possible atm at the moment btw by the way b4 before c u 18r see you later gr8! great! r u are you thx thanks tmrw/2moro tomorrow ttyl talk to you later 2 day today 2 nite tonight brb be right back 0 I'm happy/joking or Good news :( I'm sad or Bad news RSVP reply to an invitation fyi for your information smh shaking my head lol laughing out loud 72 m v-, • m IMVESTICE DOftOZVOJÉ VľDÉLAtíW