1
PARTIAL FUNCTIONS DEFICITS WITH PUPILS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING
DEFICIENCIES IN MATHEMATICS
Lenka Pavlíčková
Specific learning difficulties are usually defined as the inability of an individual of average
intelligence, having suitable socio-cultural opportunities, to learrn how to read, write, and
calculate through the generally used teaching methods. The following are the basic kinds of
such deficiencies: dyslexia (deficiency in reading), dysorthography (deficiency in spelling and
grammar), dysgraphia (deficiency in writing, and in graphical output) and dyscalculia
(deficiency in calculating, in mathematical abilities). Some partial functions necessary to learn
reading, writing, and calculating are usually impaired with all these pupils. These include
mainly perception, cognitive, and motoric functions. For the diagnosis and the following reeducation
of the specific learning difficulties, it is important to know which functions are
damaged and/or underdeveloped , to what extent and in what combination.
In the following, we will focus on the possible influence of the partial functions deficits on the
success of the pupil in mathematics. In mathematics classes, the teachers should not focus
exclusively on the pupils who have been diagnosed with dyscalculia, but also on those who
have other specific learning difficulties. After reading the report from the pedagogical and
psychological consultancy, the teacher should focus on the deficient partial functions and
know how these deficits can influence the pupil’s learning in mathematics. The diagnose of
the concrete deficit of a partial function can contribute also to the more direct remedial
teaching. If we, for example, know that the pupil’s abilities in visual recognition are bad, we
can use a wide variety of exercises focusing on visual recognition, which helps in overcoming
this partial deficit. From the manifestation of this deficit we can then anticipate in which areas
of mathematics the pupil will encounter difficulties and can opt for suitable teaching methods
and compensation aids. In remedial teaching, we always proceed from simple exercises (tasks,
exercises) to the more complex ones.
The ability to learn calculation is thus not connected only to the pre-number images of the
pupil, but also with partial functions that are necessary not just for learning to calculate, but
also for reading and writing. These functions include sensory perception (perception
function), cognitive functions, and motoric functions. Apart from that, the coordination of the
individual functions is also important. Table 1 gives a better image of the categorization of the
partial functions.
Table 1
Partial functions of the mathematical abilities
Function Areas Partial functions
Perception
function
Visual perception – spatial orientation
– right-left orientation
– visual differentiation
– visual analysis and synthesis
– visual memory
– sharp eye
Auditory perception – auditory analysis and synthesis
– auditory differentiation
– perception and reproduction of rythm
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– auditory memory
Cognitive function – attention
– memory
– thinking
– speech
– pre-number and number sense
Motoric functions – gross and fine motor skills
– sensomotoric co-ordination
– visual-motoric co-ordination
– graphofomotorika
Visual perception
Deficit in visual perception is mainly found among pupils with dyslexia, further also among
pupils with dyscalculia and dysorthographia. Among pupils with dyslexia, visual perception
is often impaired (e.g. of the mirror images and tiny details, distinguishing between the figure
and the background, perception of colours), it is quite common that it is accompanied by the
right-left confusion (in macro- as well as in micro-space). impairment of visual analysis and
synthesis, and the impairment of visual memory. Pupils with dyscalculia often also suffer
from the right-left confusion and spatial disorientation.
Deficit in visual perception can be manifest in different ways. The pupil for example
perceives e.g. the shapes of numbers in a distorted form Confusion of digits (6 – 9, 3 – 8) and
of other signs with similar shape is typical. The pupils have greater difficulty in distinguishing
similar shapes and minute differences – they do not perceive small differences between two
pictures, cannot fill in the missing element in the picture, cannot determine what makes two
pictures similar. They have difficulties finding objects on a varied background. These
difficulties can be projected for example in geometry in distinguishing the geometrical shape
and auxiliary lines, axial and central symmetry. They have problems assessing distances and
in determining direction, which becomes visible through lower orientation on the line, in a
paragraph, in a column, on the page, and in the text in general. Problems with spatial
orientation can be visible in orientation in writing (writing down the mathematical
operations), in the table, in the graph, etc. For the sake of clarity, we sum up the
manifestations of the deficits of partial functions of visual perception in Table 2.
Table 2
Manifestations of deficits of partial functions of visual perception
Deficit of the partial
function of visual
perception
Manifestation of the deficit
Spatial orientation – difficulties in orientation on the page
– the child has difficulties in orientation in macro- and microspace
(up – down, in front of – behind, first – last)
– transfers in number writing (swapping the order of digits)
– transfers in written addition, subtraction etc., with digits for
the orders of magnitudes not in the matching columns
– difficulties in orientation on the number line
– difficulties in writing down the analysis of word problems
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– difficulties with assessing the distance
– limited ability to define the order of elements in a line, to
order elements according to certain criteria
– difficulties in orientation in time (on the time axis)
– difficulties in solving equations
– difficulties in writing down formulas
– difficulties in orientation in co-ordinate axes (in a graph)
– difficulties in understanding the depiction of a spatial
situation in a plane through projection (e.g. free projection)
Left-right
orientation
– children confuse the sides of some digits, e.g. 1, 3
– they e.g. change the order of digits in a number (86 – 68)
– difficulties in writing down numbers with more digits
– difficulties with orientation on the number line, with
understanding the relationships on the number line
– difficulties in geometry (e.g. with axial and central
symmetry)
– difficulties in orientation in a graph
Distinguishing
visually
– difficulties in recognizing external qualities – colour, size,
shape
– difficulties in recognizing the figure and the background
– difficulties in recognizing similar and axially symmetrical
shapes
– children confuse similar digits (e.g. 3 – 8, 4 – 7)
– children confuse digits that are axially symmetrical with
horizontal axis (6 – 9) – static inversion
– childred confuse (swap) the order of digits in numbers (24 –
42) – kinetic inversion
– difficulties with recognizing geometrical shapes (the pupil
can classify them neither according to the shape, nor size)
– difficulties in recognizing operation signs and mathematical
operations (e.g. greater – less than)
Visual analysis and
synthesis
– difficulties in reading (the child must be able to compose the
word from letters and decompose the word into letters)
– inability to read mathematical symbols (digits, numbers,
ordering signs, signs for operations)
– difficulties in reading more-digit numbers
– difficulties in reading mathematical signs
– difficulties in writing according to a dictation, rewriting and
copying (inability to write math. signs in dictation or copying)
Visual memory – difficulties in remembering and recalling individual digits
– difficulties in remembering the read text and its reproduction
– difficulties in reading (visual memory is important for
reading for the ability to perceive sign or letter and remember
it for a certain amount of time)
– learning difficulties (child cannot recall what was written in
the exercise book, what in the textbook, what caption went
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with which picture, what was highlited, etc. and by association
fill in also the missing information)
Remedial teaching for visual perception
During remedial teaching for visual perception, we always proceed from perception of
concrete objects and manipulation with them to their depiction (pictures of concrete objects,
later we can opt for more complex, so-called story depiction). In the next phase, we
concentrate on abstract shapes and symbols and finally we devote attention to more complex
schemes (we use geometrical shapes, shapes resembling letters, and the letters themselves).
For the development of the individual functions of visual perception, we may use a whole
scale of remedial teaching exercises (see Zelinková, 1994; Zelinková, 1996; Zelinková, 2003;
Michalová, 2001; Janečková, 2004; Bednářová, 2003; Bednářová, 2004b; Žáčková, &
Jucovičová, 2007; Jucovičová, & Žáčková, 2008, Pokorná, 2011; Balharová, & Bubeníčková,
2011; Balharová et al., 2014). Here, only a few examples of the exercises are given.
• practising spatial orientation
To practise spatial orientation in macrospace, we can use the game „Leading the blind“.
During this game, the pupils go through a path (at school, in a forest) in pairs, in which one
child’s eyes have been covered with a scarf, while the other child leads the first one by the
arm and gives walking directions in words (NB, we have to take care of children’s health and
safety). At the end of the walk, the child that could not see guesses to which place they have
been led. The game has positive impact not only on spatial orientation, but also on empathy of
the children. In order to practise orientation in microspace, we can use for example various
kinds of „ways through mazes“ in pictures (Figure 1). We let the children start with simple
mazes and go on to more complex ones.
Figure 1
Way through the maze
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• practising right-left orientation
Practising right-left orientation belongs to the most difficult practices, which is confirmed by
frequent examples of people who suffer from right-left confusion even as adults. We can
practise right-left orientation through finalizing or filling in pictures – pupils follow out
instructions and finalize the picture, fill in what is missing on the right- or left-hand side of
the picture (or at the top or bottom of the picture, ...). An interesting aid for stimulation is a
special memory game, in which pupils do not seek just one pair of identical cards, but two
(for example, an ice-hockey player has the hockey stick on the right-hand side in one pair, and
on the left-hand side on the other – pupils have to find both alternatives and match them
correctly).
• practising visual distinction
For practising colours, we can e.g. use the game „Mr. Stork Lost His Hat.“ And the hat was of
the colour.... blue (we can use any colour in the place of the blue). Immediately after the
colour has been mentioned, the player starts and attempts to catch somebody. Other players
quickly try to hold on to anything that is of the given colour. If they are holding on to some
thing of the given colour, they are safe. If the „Stork“ does not catch anyone, he or she repeats
the rhyme again. If he or she catches somebody, that person becomes the „Stork“ and recites
the rhyme.
For practising visual distinction, we can also use „Origami“. Folding paper. By folding and
twisting the paper, by creasing it and partly decreasing it, we can forma various shapes – fish,
birds, animals, pieces of furniture, masks, ornamnets, ... With children, we start with the
simplest patterns and gradually move on to the more complex ones.
• practising visual analysis and synthesis
When practising visual analysis and synthesis, we focus on various kinds of construction kits,
mosaics, puzzles, cut pictures (first with colours, later black and white – colours make the
orientation easier), geometrical shapes of letters and digits. We first use the simples types. We
construct things first with the use of a master pattern, then only with a short-term exposition
of the master pattern (the pupil finishes the work on the basis of his or her memory) and finaly
without the master pattern.
• practising visual memory
We train visual memory by several-seconds long exposure of various objects, pictures, letters,
digits, etc., which the child should then describe. When working with more pupils, we can ask
the pupils to write down what they remember. For this practice, the so-called „Kim’s games“
are useful. We show the pupils a set of various objects, which we will then cover and the
pupils say what they have seen, or, alternatively, we can take away or add some objects and
the pupils guess what has changes. We start with a small number of objects and we add
gradually, or sometimes show less objects. Another game that we can play is the game „What
has changed?“ The pupils guess what has changed in the room, on the blackboard, on the
table, on the teacher or a child. They write down or draw the changes
Auditory perception
It is mainly the pupils with dysortography and also pupils with dyslexia who most often suffer
from the deficit in auditory perception is. Pupils with dysortographia mainly suffer from a
deficit in auditory distinguishing (theseare mainly concern distinguishing sounds, their height,
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depth, and length of tones, individual vowels and consonants, syllables, and words), further,
the auditory analysis and synthesis, auditory orientation, and auditory memory are impaired.
Pupils with dyslexia usually suffer from deficient auditory analysis and synthesis.
Imprecise auditory perception deforms and makes more difficult the perception and
understanding of the spoken language, e.g. the exposition and explanation of the teacher and
other information transmitted in auditory way. The pupil often asks about things that have just
been told and does not remember the spoken orders. Impaired auditory memory can
significantly complicate the learning process through audition. For pupils with impared or
insufficiently developed auditory perception, written expression often presents great
difficulty. (especially when visual support is excluded – e.g. during a dictation). As a result of
this, specific mistakes occur. Pupils with this deficit often have weaker verbal memory, which
is manifested in all subjects. For the sake of clarity, we sum up the manifestations of the
deficits of partial functions of auditory perception in Table 3.
Table 3
Manifestations of deficits of partial functions of auditory perception
Deficit of the partial
function of auditory
perception
Manifestation of the deficit
Auditory analysis
and synthesis
– difficulties especially in writing (specific mistakes occur)
– incorrect writing of digits and numbers during dictation
– difficulties in writing mathematical signs by dictation
– difficulties may occur also in reading
– forgets beginings and ends of words
Auditory perception – difficulties especially in writing (specific mistakes occur)
– incorrect writing of digits and numbers during dictation (e.g.
confusion of 80 and 18, 3 and 4)
– difficulties in writing mathematical symbols by dictation
– difficulties may occur also in reading
Perception and
reproduction of
rythm
– difficulties when counting by one
– difficulties in orrientation on the number line
– difficulties in observing regularities, dependency
Auditory memory – difficulties in written tests, when the pupil needs to keep the
task in memory and only write down the result
– difficulties in remembering the dictated task
– the child has difficulties to remember the order, sentence, or
its part (e.g. during a dictation)
– difficulties in learning nursery rhymes, poems
– difficulties with learning exclusively in the auditory way
(when the subject matter is explained only orally, they
remember almost nothing)
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Remedial teaching for deficits in auditory perception
During remedial teaching for auditory perception, we always start with using the stationary
source of the sound and slowly move to the moving source of the sound. We first concentrate
on the non-spoken sounds (first natural, then artificial, reproduced – e.g. recorded on a tape
recorder. If the child masters this, we move towards sounds of speech. The sounds should be
clear to start with, which we slowly substitute with less clear sounds, where greater
receptiveness and greater contradistinction is necessary. In the beginning, we perform the
exercise in favourable acoustic environment (silent room, slow and clear speech), later, we
can use worse environment (there is accompanying music, we speak faster, more people speak
at the same time etc.)
For the development of the individual functions of auditory perception, we can also use a
large number of remedial teaching exercises (see Zelinková, 1994; Zelinková, 2003;
Michalová, 2001; Žáčková, & Jucovičová, 2007; Jucovičová, & Žáčková, 2008, Pokorná,
2011). Here, only a few examples of the exercises are given.
• practising auditory analysis and synthesis
For practising auditory analysis and synthesis, we may use various forms of „word football“.
The following word starts e.g. with the last letter(vowel or consonant) of the preceding word
(tree – egg – gum – mother – road; key – yarn - nod). We can also use pictures – children
name them and order them in a corresponding way (e.g. the name for the following picture
begins with the same syllable with which the preceding picture ends). We can also use the
game of E. T.‘s: pupils change into extraterrestrial beings (E.T.‘s) and they communicate by
spelling out all the words (G-i-v-e-m-e-y-o-u-r-h-a-n-d). In the game of robots, they cut the
words into the individual syllables (Give-me-your-hand).
• practising auditory distinction
When practising auditory perception, we may use the exercise when the child should perceive
the voice of the speaker in an environment where outside sounds are present (e.g. noise from
the street, music). To start with, the intensity of the irrelevant sounds should be low and we
gradually increase is. We can also use a recording in such a way that the pupil listens to the
narration accompanied by music.
• practising perception and reproduction of rhythm
Perception and reproduction of rhythm can be practised with exercises focusing on clapping
out the rhythm of well-known songs. Later, pupils may guess what song it was. We can also
use the game when pupils sit one behind another – we tap the rhythmic sequence to the first
one, the pupil transmits it in the same way to the pupil sitting in front of him, etc. The first
one than claps the rhythm out. The game of foreigners is also suitable, when the pupils listen
to a foreign language and then they are asked to emulate it. We focus on the intonation and
speed of talking. The pupil repeats the rhythm we have performed (clapping, tapping,
stamping, etc.).
• practising auditory memory
We develop auditory memory through nursery rhymes, where the rhythm supports the
remembering of short poems. For older children, we prepare interesting quotations, proverbs,
etc., which they are to learn by heart. To develop auditory memory, we may also use the
memorizing of various stories. The pupils listens to a story (its extent and difficulty should be
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adequate for the child) and then answers the question (in the beginning, the pupils knows the
question in advance, but not in the more advanced stages).
Cognitive functions
Deficit in cognitive function is found especially with pupils suffering from dyscalculia,
further with pupils suffering from dyslexia and dysorthography. Pupils suffering from
dyscalculia usually usually have deficit especially in mathematical abilities that are not
influenced by a deficiency in mental abilites or by incorrect teaching methods, since the
centers connected with mathematical functions maturity are usually defect. Memory is usually
defect in pupils with dyslexia and dysorthography (dyslectic pupils have the visual memory
defect, while dysorthographic pupils have the auditory memory defect) and they also suffer
from the deficit in concentration and attention.
Cognitive functions include congnition processes and operations that are important in teaching
mathematics, e.g. the level of concentration and attention, memory, and thinking. Cognitive
functions belong to the essential mental processes, through which the interaction of the
individual with the outside world takes place, they are the means for processing information –
its reception, storage, and processing. Solving of any mathematical task requires full
concentration and unsuccessful attempts to solve the problem may be caused, for example, by
the inability of the child to focus on the problem. For the sake of clarity, we sum up the
manifestations of the deficits of partial functions of the cognitive function in Table 4.
Table 4
Manifestations of the deficits of the partial functions of the cognitive function
Deficit of the partial
function of the
cognitive function
Manifestation of the deficit
Attention – child has a short attention span, does not finish tasks
– child takes long to achieve the sufficient concentration level,
after that, they can evenfinish the task
Memory – difficulties with short-term memory, which enables the child
to remember dictated numbers and tasks, perform intermediate
sums and store them in memory (e.g. when multiplying 4 x 28,
we proceed thus: 4 x 20 = 80, 4 x 8 = 32, 80 + 32 = 112)
– difficulties with working memory (when weaker, the child
cannot keep more facts in memory concurrently, which is
manifest in inability to apply facts acquired in various areas)
– difficulties with long-term memory (learned facts that are
not constantly repeated are forgotten by the child and we
always have to start from the beginning)
– deficits in acquiring memory connections
Thinking – difficulties in logical thinking (in reasoning correctly
according to the laws of formal logic)
– difficulties in abstract thinking (in transfer from the concrete
to the abstract)
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Speech
– children cannot formulate the thoughts in mathematics in
their own words (if they have learned the matter correctly,
they understand the essence of the problem, then they can
express it in words)
Pre-number and
number notions
– difficulties in pre-number and number notions (inability to
connect a number with the amount of elements), not
understanding the notion of a natural number
– difficulties in understanding mathematical relations, e.g.
dependencies in number sequences (children e.g. cannot name
the number sequenc, they do not understand the notions
greater than – less then,and have especially grave difficulties
in transferes over ten
– disorders of time orientation (difficulties in understanding
the units of time and their transfers; understanding the
relations on the clock and the linear elapse of the time, with
reading time data written digitally)
– difficulties when performing mathematical operations
(confusing mathematical operations, e.g. division –
multiplication, tens and units during addition)
– impaired ability to perform mathematical operations with
natural numbers (but also with other kinds of numbers)
– confusion of the individual operations
– inability to respect priority of operation when performing
more operations of differing parity
– problems with written algorithms for individual operations
– deficit in understanding mathematical notions and their
mutual relations
– deficit in generalizing
Remedial teaching for cognitive functions
For the development of the individual functions of the cognitive function, we can also use a
large number of remedial teaching exercises. Here, only a few examples of the exercises are
given and these are focused on the improvement of the attention span, memory, thinking, and
speech (see Zelinková, 1994; Zelinková 2003; Michalová, 2001; Lynch, & Kidd, 2002;
Havas, 2005; Havas, 2006; Žáčková, & Jucovičová, 2007; Mathias, 2007; Jucovičová, &
Žáčková; Pokorná, 2011; Balharová, & Bubeníčková, 2011; Balharová, & kol., 2014). The
development of pre-number sense and number sense (see Blažková, & al., 2000; Blažková,
2009; Blažková, 2010; Blažková, 2013; Novák, 2000; Novák, 2004; Bednářová, 2004a;
Bartoňová, 2005; Simon, 2006) forms an important and rather wide-ranging area in this
context. In this text, however, we will not deal with it for the sake of brevity of the text.
• practising concentration and attention span
These exercises require precision when performing the task. Therefore the pupils should be
asked to be perform the task carefully and with precision, and if we see that the quality of
their work diminishes, we should rather interrupt the exercise. In the given exercise (Figure
2), the pupil is asked to cross out one to four pictures (the task should be neither easy, nor
hard for the pupil). The difficulty of the task lies in the choice of pictures.
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Figure 2
Worksheet to practise concentrarion
• practising memory
Through different exercises, we can improve visual memory (see the part practising visual
memory), auditory memory (see the part practising auditory memory), and kinesthetic
memory. Kinesthetic memory can be developed through sets of exercises, dancing steps and
figureys. Tactile perception and memory can be developed e.g. in the following way: the pupil
is asked to distinguish between different materials only by touching them and recognize them
again. With closed eyes and bare feet, the pupil is led across a path that is made of stone
cubes, logs, sand, soil, metal foil, saw dust, etc. The pupil determines the material of the path.
• practising thinking
A classical exercise for developing logical thinking are the tasks to determine not fitting
object(s) in a set of similar objects. Another level of tasks of this kind is filling in logically
constructed sequences, e.g the following task: which is logically the next letter in the
sequence A B A C A D A E A ? Which letter will follow? a) A C E G I ?, b) Y X V T R ?, c)
A Y B Z C ?. Spatial thinking can be practised by a variety of tasks similar to the ones show
in Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 3
Practising spatial thinking 1
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Figurek 4
Practising spatial thinking 2
• practising speaking
To practise speaking, we may for example use the following games: „Finish the story.“ We
ask the pupil to finish a short story; we may start by asking him to finish individual sentences.
„Where is the mistake?“ We relate short stories to the pupils and intersperse them with
nonsence (nonsensical words, words that do not fit the story or are not suitable for the story).
The pupils try to find the wrong words and remove them. „The Poet“. We seek rhymes. At
first, we let the pupil fill in a suitable rhyme in the nursery rhyme or a sentence, later we
proceed to seek rhyming word pairs (say – day. hen – ten, ...).
Motoric function
Deficit in motoric function is especially found with pupisl suffering from dysgraphia and
further also pupisl suffering from dyscalculia. Pupils with dysgrafia usually suffer from
impaired motor skills, most often the fine graphomotoric skills, sometimes also in
combination with gross motor skill. These pupils often also suffer from the disorder of
motoric co-ordination and from difficulties sensory and motor area. Pupils with dyscalculia
usually suffer from the disorder in motor skills and sensory and motor co-ordination.
Motor functions include the genral motor skills of the whole body. In teaching mathematics,
gross and fine motor skills and graphomotoric skills are the most important ones. For the sake
of clarity, we sum up the manifestations of the deficits of partial functions of the motoric
function in Table 5.
Table 5
Manifestations of the deficits of the partial functions of the motor function
Deficit of the partial
function of motoric
function
Manifestation of the deficit
Gross and fine motor
skills
– deficit in manipulation with concrete objects or symbols,
difficulties in manipulative activities for establishing basic
notions and operations
– deficit in creating groups of objects
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– difficulties in number writing
– difficulties in writing down operation algorithms
– difficulties in technical drawing
Sensomotoric
coordination
– difficulties with concurrent sensory perception and
motion
Visual-motoric
coordination
– difficulties with concurrent visual perception and motion
Graphomotorics – difficulties in writing mathematical symbols (digits,
numbers, etc.)
– difficulties in writing several-digit numbers
– difficulties in writing numbers below each numbers
(keeping the digits of the same order in the same column)
– difficulties in writing (writing slowly)
– difficulties in writing numbers (especially when learning
the shapes of the digits)
– difficulties in writing operation algorithsm
– difficulties with drawing shapes with ruler and compass
Reemedial teaching for motoric functions
To develop the motoric functions, we can use a large number of remedial teaching exercises
(see Zelinková, 2003; Jucovičová, & Žáčková, 2008). Here, we again mention some of the
exercises to illustrate the point
• practising gross motor skills
To practise gross motor skills, we can use e.g. exercises that focus e.g. on arm movement:
waving, circling (flying bird, mowing the lawn, swimming free style), alternating raising arms
up and sideways, circling with forearm (forming a ball from yarn) or movements with palms:
forward, back, left, right, circling with palms (waving, shaking), pressing palms against
themselves and relaxing, closing the fist and opening it again, alternating hitting the table with
palm and fist.
• nácvik jemné motoriky
There are many exercises to develop fine motor skills, e.g. modelling, tearing out and folding
paper, bead work, colouring books.
• practising sensomotory co-ordintation
Activities and exercises that can be used to practise senso-motoric co-ordination are e.g.
pasting a piece of coloured paper into a preprinted contour, into the shape cut out from a foil
(packaging, cellophane), weaving braids, cutting (to start with, we use paper that is not too
thin, we hold the paper and we move the paper when the direction of the cutting changes, not
the scissors), first in any direction, then between two straight lines, along a thic line, and only
then along a thin line, and after mastering this, we move to curved lines,…
• practising graphomotorics
Practising is always accompanied by oral explanation (we use rhyming, give clear explanation
of the writing procedure). The pupil repeatedly practises by emulating what we do (in the air –
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also with eyes closed), „writes“ with the whole body, follows the line with finger, chalk, etc,
describese the procedure aloud. To practise writing, we can include e.g. the following
elements: free drawing on the paper (the ball is round, the car follows a winding road, the
snake is winding etc.); yarn balls; circles; spirals; ovals,; arcs; waves; loopholes; „eights“;
snakes. We may also introduce surface exercises (delineating various elements on a surface)
or line exercise (delinating picture elements on a line).
References / Further reading
Balharová, K., & Bubeníčková, P. (2011). Vzděláváme děti se specifickými poruchami učení
na 1. St. ZŠ. Nápravná cvičení – SPU. Praha: Dr. Josef Raabe, s.r.o.
Balharová, K., Suchoňová, M, & Svobodová, Z. (2014). Vzděláváme děti se specifickými
poruchami učení na 1. St. ZŠ. Nápravná cvičení II. – SPU. Praha: Dr. Josef Raabe, s.r.o.
Bartoňová, M. (2005). Kapitoly ze specifických poruch učení II. Reedukace specifických
poruch učení. Brno: Masarykova univerzita.
Bednářová, J. (2003). Zrakové rozlišování. Brno: Pedagogicko–psychologická poradna
Zachova 1.
Bednářová, J. (2004a). Předčíselné představy. Brno: Pedagogicko–psychologická poradna
Zachova 1.
Bednářová, J. (2004b). Prostorová orientace. Brno: Pedagogicko–psychologická poradna
Zachova 1.
Blažková, R., Matoušková, K., Vaňurová, M., & Blažek, M. (2000). Poruchy učení
v matematice a možnosti jejich nápravy. Praha: Paido.
Blažková, R. (2009). Dyskalkulie a další specifické poruchy učení v matematice. Brno: PdF
MU.
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