Doing Science Internationally
in the early 20th century
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Science done internationally?
⚫ What does it mean?
− Letter Exchange
− Translations
− Universities as meeting places
− Studying abroad
⚫ Obstacles to meeting in person:
− Distance
− Borders
− …
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1893: Columbian exhibition
⚫ Meeting of mathematicians: associated
⚫ Organised by Felix Klein
⚫ Two other participants from Europe:
− Eduard Study
− Norbert Herz
⚫ Compare: Antonín Dvořák (1892-1895)
− Journey nine days (train, ship, train)
− for a stay months, not days, long
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American mathematics: offspring of German and
British mathematics?
James Joseph Sylvester
(1814-1897)
Felix Klein
(1849-1925)
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Evanston, IL
1893
Lectures by Felix Klein
for American
mathematicians
from 28 August
to 9 September
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International Congress of Mathematicians:
Before the Great War
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⚫ Zurich, Switzerland (1897)
⚫ Paris, France (1900)
⚫ Heidelberg, Germany (1904)
⚫ Rome, Italy (1908)
⚫ Cambridge, UK (1912)
Zurich
1897
Daniel Bernoulli
(1700-1782)
Jacob Bernoulli
(1654-1705)
Johann Bernoulli
(1667-1748)
Leonhard Euler
(1707-1783)
Jakob Steiner
(1796-1863)
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Paris
1900
Start of a new century
David Hilbert
(1862-1943)
French mathematicians:
Charles Hermite
(1822-1901)
Friend with M. Lerch
(1860-1922)
Henri Poincaré
(1854-1912)
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Heidelberg
1904
Remembering:
Carl Gustav Jacobi
(1804-1851)
Affiliations:
Towns, not countries
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Rome
1908
Guido Castelnuovo
(1865-1952)
Representatives of math.
societies and institutions:
Academis of science
Mathematical societies
Smithsonian Institution
Ministries
Government representation
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Cambridge
1912
Local organising
committee
International
programme committe
Introducers of sections
(nowadays: chairs)
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Repercussions of the Great War
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⚫ ICSU – international science council
⚫ Abbreviations: in French (diplomatic
language, language of post office, …)
⚫ Founded by the French and Belgians
⚫ Excluded from international scientific
communication: Germans
(also: Austrians, Bulgarians --- that is
those who lost)
International Congress of Mathematicians:
Interbellum
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⚫ Strasbourg, France (1920)
⚫ Toronto, Canada (1924)
⚫ Bologna, Italy (1928)
⚫ Zurich, Switzerland (1932)
⚫ Oslo, Norway (1936)
Strasbourg
1920
Introducing new
international
organisations
Excluding Germans
IMU: without Felix
Klein, David Hilbert,
and others
Resistence (1924)
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Toronto
1924
First on the American
continent
Czech participation
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Bologna
1928
Germans were (finally!)
also allowed to
participate
Diplomacy
Is this an international
congress?
What about the ones
before?
Were they truly
international?
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Zurich
1932
In parallel:
Rockefeller foundation
grants
Institute for Advanced
Study founded in
Princeton
(Oswald Veblen)
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Oslo
1936
Commemorating
Niels Henrik Abel
(1802-1829)
Note the sign
And the language
Congresses growing in
size
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Evening lecture
by Howard Aiken at ICM 1950:
Computing Machines
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1st International Congress of Mathematicians
after WWII: Cambridge, MA / Harvard (1950)
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http://legacy-www.math.harvard.edu/history/icm1950/index.html