Basics of Educational Assessment- study guide

Teacher as a Diagnostician

The Importance of Diagnostic Assessment

The necessity for a teacher's diagnostic activity is intertwined with the contemporary educational concept centred on personal development in the 21st century and the dynamics of individual growth. Consequently, to adequately foster a student's character, a thorough understanding of them is imperative—not only on an individual level but also within a broader social framework and in consideration of their existential circumstances. Proficiency in diagnostic assessment equips teachers with the requisite knowledge and skills to achieve this aim. Indeed, a teacher's diagnostic activity stands as a pivotal component of the educational process. Its absence compromises the quality and efficacy of teaching. It serves as the cornerstone for personalised student engagement and instructional differentiation, underpins instructional planning, furnishes insights into student learning outcomes, and evaluates the efficacy of chosen teaching methodologies. When conducted sensitively, professionally, and systematically over time, diagnostic activity enables teachers to assess the quality and effectiveness of their teaching methods (Kratochvílová et al., 2015).

As the educational paradigm shifts, the concept of diagnostic assessment undergoes transformation. It is no longer solely concerned with identifying challenges, foreseeing development trajectories, and benchmarking student achievements against predefined standards (summative diagnosis). Instead, it now encompasses diagnostic approaches that actively support student learning and growth (formative diagnosis). Unlike medical diagnosis, which primarily considers a child's health status, or psychological diagnosis, which focuses on psychological developmental stages, educational diagnosis primarily relies on educational data (Mertin & Krejčová, 2012, p. 23).

Key Concepts of Diagnostic Assessment

The term 'diagnostics' originates from the Greek word 'diagnosis', which encompasses several meanings, including:

- Understanding.

- Determining a condition, assessment, evaluation.

- The process of recognition, such as diseases.

- Testing techniques.

- An activity providing objective knowledge about the examined phenomenon.

From an educational perspective, various diagnostic disciplines are delineated based on their objectives, the subject of study, and the individuals authorised to conduct diagnostic activities. Counseling psychodiagnostics, for instance, is an applied psychological discipline dedicated to identifying and measuring an individual's psychological traits that influence their performance in specific areas, such as school. It also involves assessing fundamental characteristics of a group, like a family or a school class, within which the observed individual is situated. This discipline is firmly grounded in personality psychology and differential psychology and falls under the purview of psychologists.

Special education diagnosing, on the other hand, focuses on identifying the conditions, progression, and outcomes of education for individuals with special educational needs. Special educators are entrusted with the responsibility of conducting diagnostic activities in this domain.

Educational diagnostic assessment, viewed as a science, is defined variably by different experts. It is often construed as a theoretical (scientific), practical, or theoretical-practical discipline.

a) Scientific Conception:

Theoretical approaches to educational diagnostic assessment centre on the theory and methodology of diagnosing within educational settings. According to Gavora (2001, p. 237), educational diagnostics entails the objective identification, assessment, and evaluation of internal and external conditions, as well as the progression and outcomes of the educational process. It encompasses the objectives, subject matter, strategies, and methods of diagnosing and shares methodological similarities with educational research.

b) Scientific and Practical Conception:

Educational diagnostic assessment can also be viewed as a field encompassing both educational theory and the methodological practices derived from it. Mojžíšek (1987) defines it as the theory and methodological practice aimed at identifying, recognising, classifying, assessing, and evaluating the pedagogical development level of a student's personality or a group of students, shaped by pedagogical action.

c) Practical Conception (Part of the Curriculum):

According to Zelinková (2001, p. 12), educational diagnostics is a multifaceted process directed towards comprehending, assessing, and evaluating the educational process and its participants. It is characterised as a prolonged and iterative process. Similarly, Tomanová (2006, p. 7) perceives educational diagnostics as direct diagnostic activities integrated into the pedagogical process. Educational diagnosing necessitates theoretical knowledge, methodological expertise, practical experience, considerable time, and effort, not only in executing diagnostic activities but also in their evaluation. Ethical conduct is imperative.

Educational-psychological diagnostic assessment, at the intersection of educational and psychological diagnosing, represents a frontier area bridging two scientific disciplines and professional domains. It is concerned with understanding and evaluating the individual peculiarities and specifics of participants in the educational process, as well as examining the conditions, progression, and outcomes of educational activities.

According to Mertin and Krejčová (2016), the primary objective of educational diagnosis for a student is to gather information about the individual's knowledge, skills, and competencies. Conversely, psychological diagnosis primarily seeks to gather information about the student's attitudes, values, and relationships with teachers and peers, i.e., their personality traits and dispositions. Actors involved in the educational and psychological assessment of a student in a school environment may include teachers, parents, and specialists such as psychologists and school counselling staff.

Educational diagnosing can be conceptualised as a process aimed at understanding the student in an educational context, in relation to their personal development and external influences impacting their growth. It is grounded in the student's life history (anamnesis), current status (diagnosis), and anticipated educational progress (prognosis). Abroad, this process is often referred to as "diagnostic assessment". According to Nitko and Brookhart (2014, pp. 5, 83), it serves two main purposes: a) identifying which learning objectives the student has achieved, what knowledge and skills they have acquired, and which objectives (knowledge and skills) they have not met; b) understanding the reasons and causes behind the achieved level. The teacher's diagnostic activity is aligned with the curriculum, its goals, and teaching strategies (curriculum-based assessment). Its objective is to determine the student's outcomes in the subject matter being studied, relative to both general and specific objectives, analyse the student's strengths and weaknesses, and derive further educational strategies based on the results (Mertin & Krejčová, 2012, pp. 32, 33).

Diagnostic Process

According to Mertin and Krejčová (2016), the general diagnostic process involves gathering data using valid and reliable tools, followed by their analysis, interpretation, and application for specific educational purposes. This process encompasses several demanding activities, including indicating (establishing occurrence), identifying (recognising types), classifying (sorting into categories), evaluating (determining levels), interpreting (explaining reasons and conditions), prognosticating (predicting development), and regulating (proposing developmental guidance).

The formal educational diagnostic process unfolds in distinct stages, as outlined by Gavora (2001):

1. Diagnostic Hypothesis: This stage involves formulating an assumption that guides diagnostic activity in a specific direction, aligning with the defined goal of the diagnosis. The goal should be clear, comprehensible, and realistic within the given diagnostic timeframe.

2. Planning the Diagnosis: Once the goal is established, meticulous planning of diagnostic activities ensues. This entails determining who will be involved, when, how, and at what intervals diagnostic sessions will occur, as well as preparing necessary resources and equipment. The diagnostic plan remains dynamic, adjusting according to the evolving diagnostic process.

3. Collection and Processing of Diagnostic Data: Employing appropriate methods and tools, educators gather essential data in accordance with legal regulations. Successive methods build upon preceding ones, ensuring the diagnostic activity remains aligned with its intended goal.

4. Evaluation and Interpretation of Diagnostic Data: This phase involves analytical and synthetic activities, including sorting, comparing, and interpreting collected data to derive meaningful insights.

5. Determining the Diagnosis: The diagnosis represents the evaluative conclusion of the diagnostic process, expressed either orally or in written form, typically comprising processed data. It reflects the current state of the student's development and remains open to accommodate changes over time.

6. Educational Measures and Intervention: The primary aim of the diagnostic process is to devise educational strategies and propose measures to facilitate improvement based on diagnostic findings.

7. Making a Prognosis: Offering a positive outlook in education is vital for the diagnosed individual and their stakeholders, particularly legal representatives.

8. Communicating the Diagnosis: Findings from the diagnostic activity should be communicated appropriately with relevant stakeholders and specialists to facilitate the implementation of necessary measures. It's important to note that this overview is not exhaustive and acknowledges the collaborative and creative nature of the diagnostic process, involving both the diagnostician and the diagnosed individual.


For instance, let's consider the case of a student, where the diagnostic activity is structured as follows:

1. Goal of Diagnostic Activity: To assess Philip's relationship with school and his performance motivation.

2. Planning of Diagnostic Activities:

   - Provide Philip with the "School Performance Motivation" questionnaire on the next day.

   - Analyse questionnaire results to formulate a hypothesis for further observation.

   - Conduct observations to confirm or refute the hypothesis.

   - Based on observations, devise supplementary questions for a semi-structured interview with Philip.

   - Analyse all obtained data to formulate findings and propose supportive measures.

3. Collection and Processing of Diagnostic Data:

   - Observations indicate  that Philip  has a high need for success, influencing his performance motivation.

   - Semi-structured interview provides insights into Philip's need for successful performance.

4. Evaluation and Interpretation of Diagnostic Data:

   - Philip's performance motivation is positively influenced by classroom atmosphere, relationships with classmates, and teacher's professional approach.

5. Diagnostic Findings:

   - Low self-esteem and attention concentration issues are identified as barriers to Philip's performance motivation.

6. Educational Measures and Intervention:

   - Involve Philip's parents in intervention to address pressure on performance.

   - Implement project-based learning and peer learning to bolster Philip's self-confidence.

   - Strengthen communication channels between teachers, parents, and Tomáš to ensure consistent support.

This example demonstrates a structured diagnostic process tailored to address specific educational objectives while considering individual needs and circumstances. Additionally, informal diagnostic activities conducted by teachers complement formal processes, contributing to ongoing assessment and intervention strategies. These informal activities, though less structured, play a crucial role in responding to students' needs and guiding subsequent formal diagnostic endeavours.

Diagnostic methods, tools, and types of diagnostic assessment

Educational diagnostic activities encompass various methods, including standardized and non-standardized (clinical), as well as tools offered within the scientific field of educational diagnostic assessment. These methods vary in their complexity and require a certain level of expertise for their implementation. Standardized methods and tools adhere to strict protocols for administration, conduct, and result processing, as outlined in the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (2001), which are accessible to teachers. However, teachers predominantly rely on non-standardized methods in their practice. Even with non-standardized methods, adherence to general diagnostic principles, including recording conditions and circumstances, is essential. The fundamental requirements for educational diagnostic methods include validity and reliability. Even for clinical methods and tools, it's crucial to ascertain whether they measure the intended constructs effectively (face validity) and align with the conceptual definition of what is being measured (content validity). In essence, methods and tools must align with the objectives of the diagnostic activity.

Teachers utilize various methods and tools for screening, diagnostic classification, intervention planning, and program evaluation, as detailed in the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (2001). In diagnostic activities, it is advisable to judiciously combine educational diagnostic methods and not rely solely on any single approach. The aim is to gain a comprehensive understanding of the student based on data obtained from diverse sources, contexts, and methodologies. A plethora of methods are available, including oral exams, written and graphic assessments, didactic tests, experimental assessments, analysis of student activity results, observations, interviews, questionnaires, anamnesis, sociometry, and examination of educational documentation and student portfolios.

Direct diagnostic activities manifest in various forms. Zelinková (2007) distinguishes several types of educational diagnostics:

a) Informal diagnostics - micro-diagnostics involve continuous assessment of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors, among other factors, on an ongoing basis.

b) Formal diagnostics entail clearly defined diagnostic situations at specific stages of teaching, accompanied by record-keeping and the use of specific methods.

c) Formative diagnostics aids in shaping student development by providing feedback on their progress. It is closely intertwined with formative assessment, both aiming to identify strengths and weaknesses in the learning process and inform instructional decisions.

d) Summative diagnostics determines a student's level of achievement at a particular juncture, typically at the culmination of a period, school year, or educational intervention.

e) Normative diagnostics involves comparing an individual's performance with that of a representative sample of the population, serving societal needs and aiding in placement decisions.

f) Criterion-referenced diagnostics evaluates student performance against predefined criteria, typically articulated in educational programs.

g) Individualized diagnostics compares a student's progress against their own prior performance, facilitating personalized assessment and motivation.

h) Differential diagnosis helps distinguish between difficulties stemming from similar manifestations but differing causes, such as discerning between behavioral issues arising from ADHD versus environmental factors.

Collaboration with experts is integral for quality diagnosis, often involving specialists associated with school counseling centers or similar facilities. These include educational counselors, school psychologists, special education teachers, and other professionals. These facilities provide a range of services, including psychological and educational support, consultations for students and parents, preventive care, and assistance in educational planning and decision-making.

Regulations, such as Regulation No. 72/2005 Coll., govern the activities of school counseling facilities, ensuring adherence to established standards and guidelines in delivering counseling services within educational settings.

The Teacher's Role as a Diagnostician

It's evident that the outcomes of a teacher's diagnostic efforts play a crucial role in defining learning objectives, both on an individual and group level. This involves a collaborative effort to achieve goals, wherein it's essential to discern between objectives set by the teacher and those set for the students themselves. By tailoring educational content and selecting appropriate teaching strategies, the teacher actively contributes to the comprehensive development of students. This is achieved by sensitively addressing the diverse needs of students in the classroom and providing constructive feedback that fosters their accountability for their learning outcomes. Thus, the teacher assumes a novel role as a "diagnostician" of the educational process.

The role of a diagnostician, as described in evidence-informed practice (Pollard et al., 2014), entails possessing competencies for educational diagnosing and making informed decisions based on reliable data. This aspect is also highlighted concerning a teacher's professional attributes (Tomková et al., 2012). The concept of diagnostic and intervention competence encompasses various teacher knowledge and skills, including:

- Recognizing the diverse learning needs and potentials of individual students and addressing them with empathy,

- Actively gathering information about students and their requirements through appropriate means (e.g., interviews, student portfolios),

- Responsively incorporating students' direct and indirect cues during teaching into the instructional process,

- Assisting isolated and marginalized students within the classroom,

- Tailoring teaching methods to suit the capacities and needs of individual students, striving for each student's personal progress,

- Maintaining records of individual students' needs and potentials (e.g., through systematic observation or student portfolios),

- Utilizing deliberate observation and other suitable data collection methods to monitor students' learning progress,

- Fostering classroom cohesion and collaboration among students,

- Analysing classroom dynamics and employing appropriate interventions to foster positive relationships.

Possessing diagnostic competence offers numerous advantages in teaching. With a deeper understanding of students' abilities and unique requirements, teachers can better tailor the educational process to individual needs, thereby enhancing its effectiveness and enabling students to reach their full potential. Ultimately, this contributes to a more conducive atmosphere of mutual respect, safety, and cooperation in the classroom.

Approaches and Strategies of Diagnostic Assessment

In the realm of eductional assessment, our primary concern lies with the student and their developmental potentials. While we often direct pedagogical interventions towards the student, we sometimes overlook the importance of teachers reflecting on their teaching approaches, strategies, and considering potential adjustments based on students' needs. Pedagogical diagnosing operates on two levels:

a) Descriptive-analytical: Here, we gather information about the student, discerning their characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and potential areas for improvement. The focus is mainly on the student, their capabilities, needs, and individualization.

b) Prescriptive-analytical: This level prompts teachers to ask themselves fundamental questions about their teaching identity and methods. It underscores the teacher's responsibility for enhancing the quality of teaching and the students' outcomes.

Various strategies are employed in pedagogical diagnosing, each closely aligned with specific goals and purposes:

The case-study-clinical strategy, sometimes termed cognitive (e.g., Gavora, 2001):

- Centers on the individuality of the student under examination,

- Emphasizes empathy and acceptance of the student as a collaborator in need of assistance,

- Explores multiple facets, influences, and causes of behaviour,

- Aims to recognize uniqueness through qualitative investigation of the phenomenon, focusing on the detailed description of individual cases (case study).

The psychometric strategy, also known as educometric:

- Focuses on quantifying the observed phenomenon and converting data into measurable units (e.g., points, scores), which are then evaluated using statistical methods,

- Operates on the assumption that individuals possess fundamentally similar traits to varying degrees, which can be measured.

Faults in Diagnostic Practices

In the realm of educational assessment, practical implementation involves a multifaceted process influenced by various factors. Among these factors are errors that teachers may inadvertently commit, resulting in the distortion of diagnostic outcomes. Some of the most prevalent errors identified in diagnostic activities, as outlined by Řezáč (1998, p. 102), include:

- Central Tendency: This error manifests as a tendency towards average assessments, often stemming from uncertainties, limited knowledge, or insufficient personal maturity.

- Logical Fallacies: Errors in reasoning where certain characteristics are inaccurately believed to be associated (e.g., assuming that someone who lies also steals).

- Evaluation Biases: Instances of leniency or biases influenced by personal experiences.

- Projection Errors: Occur when personal problems or biases are projected onto the individual being assessed.

Additionally, errors may arise from:

- Incomplete Information

- Generalized Conclusions and Measures, lacking specificity

- Superficial Symptom Listing, neglecting underlying causes and potential solutions

- Confusion between Symptoms and Causes

- Hasty Conclusions and Prejudices

- Absence of Evaluation Criteria

- Perceptual Stereotypes, including the Halo Effect (influenced by initial impressions), Golem Effect (negative expectations leading to self-fulfilling prophecies), and Sequence Effect (previous evaluations influencing subsequent ones).

Faults in educational assessment may also arise from misconceptions about the diagnostic process and its sequential phases. To prevent such errors, it is advisable to:

- Recognize diagnostics as a fundamental aspect of education

- Establish a systematic approach to diagnosing

- Validate conclusions through comparison with those of others

- Familiarize oneself with common errors in diagnostic practices

- Employ multiple diagnostic methods to ensure comprehensive assessment.

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