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Developing Physics Experiments Using Augmented Reality Game-Based
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computers
Article
Developing Physics Experiments Using Augmented Reality
Game-Based Learning Approach: A Pilot Study in Primary
School
Maria Zafeiropoulou , Christina Volioti, Euclid Keramopoulos and Theodosios Sapounidis *
Citation: Zafeiropoulou, M.;
Volioti, C.; Keramopoulos, E.;
Sapounidis, T. Developing Physics
Experiments Using Augmented
Reality Game-Based Learning
Approach: A Pilot Study in Primary
School. Computers 2021, 10, 126.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
computers10100126
Academic Editors: Carlos Vaz de
Carvalho and Antonio Coelho
Received: 9 September 2021
Accepted: 7 October 2021
Published: 11 October 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Department of Information and Electronic Engineering, International Hellenic University,
57001 Nea Moudania, Greece; mariazaf1996@gmail.com (M.Z.); chvolioti@gmail.com (C.V.); euclid@ihu.gr (E.K.)
* Correspondence: teo@edlit.auth.gr
Abstract: The augmented reality game-based learning (ARGBL) approach is an advantageous pathway
for the development and enhancement of teaching and learning processes. To this end, this
paper presents the design and development of an ARGBL application for the implementation of
physics experiments in the fifth grade of a Greek primary school. The purpose of the ARGBL system
is twofold: to educate and entertain. For this reason, a treasure hunt game was implemented, which
allows students to interact with a digital world and to manipulate virtual objects with the use of an
augmented reality (AR) device. Then, according to the instructions, students have to collect all the
materials to conduct the AR educational experiment. Overall, the evaluation of the system’s usability
by 17 users (both students and teachers) was very promising, indicating that the ARGBL application
has the potential to be an easy-to-use educational tool for improving not only the teaching of physics
experiments in primary school but also the learning process, by positively affecting the students’
motivation and engagement.
Keywords: augmented reality; game-based learning; usability; primary school; physics
1. Introduction
Azuma [1] defined augmented reality (AR) as a technology by which users can integrate
3D virtual objects in real time into their real-world environment. AR is a popular
technology that is used in many aspects of our lives [2,3]. The basic reason for its popularity
is that it has no special equipment requirements as in virtual reality. A smart device (tablet
or smartphone) is enough. Moreover, recently, large companies in the field of information
technology, such as Google and Apple, have delivered suitable frameworks and APIs to
programmers, in order to develop a high quality of augmented reality applications, such as
ARCore [4], ARKIT [5] and libraries for Unity [6].
For the last decade, augmented reality has been used in research to improve the
educational process at all levels of education from primary education to university [7]. A
remarkable number of augmented reality applications have been created, which basically
augment the content of a schoolbook mainly using text, pictures and video [8,9]. Field
experiments using AR application in education have shown that the education process
was improved by increasing the fun, enjoyment, interest and engagement of students [7].
Furthermore, another interesting approach that has gained attention in education science
is augmented reality game-based learning (ARGBL), which can transform the learning
experience and influence students’ motivation, skill development and knowledge [10].
Apart from the learning process, AR and ARGBL technology can additionally benefit the
teaching process. Teachers who integrate such innovative approaches into the teaching
process can introduce and explain to students complex and/or abstract concepts through a
multisensory way, encouraging social interaction and improving collaboration [7,11]. All
in all, AR and ARGBL can be successfully used in educational environments, positively
Computers 2021, 10, 126. https://doi.org/10.3390/computers10100126 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/computers
Computers 2021, 10, 126 2 of 14
affecting both the teaching and the learning process, since (a) the cost of materials for the
experiment disappears (sometimes a big problem for the education procedure [11]), (b) the
experiment can be repeated as many times as the educational process requires (without
the thought of wasting materials) and, most importantly, (c) the student can repeat the
experiment when studying the course at home.
In this paper, an ARGBL approach was introduced for teaching the experimental
part of a lesson of physics in the fifth grade of a Greek primary school. In particular, an
application is presented that is based on ARGBL for the development of all the experiments
for the unit of physics in the fifth grade of a Greek primary school. The contribution of
this research is multifaceted. The case study focuses on lab/practical experiments in a unit
such as physics, by adopting a game-based approach, which, according to the literature
review, has found limited implementation in primary schools. All the experiments can be
executed using an ordinary smart device such as a smartphone or a tablet. Additionally,
the applications were designed to be interactive. This was conducted using game-based
learning, where students are invited with a treasure hunt game to discover the materials of
the experiment in one place. Thus, they are “forced” to pay attention to the materials used
for the experiment. Then, after “accomplishing the mission” of finding all the materials,
they can “run” the experiment as many times as they want until all the questions regarding
the experiment and the physics topic are answered. We used the ARGBL application to
perform a pilot experiment in a primary school, where the results were very satisfactory
and showed that this approach greatly improves the educational process as it increases the
fun, enjoyment, engagement and interest in the course.
This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, AR and ARGBL are introduced. In
Section 3, a short review is presented regarding the use of AR and ARGBL in physical
science in both primary and secondary school. Next, in Section 4, the description of the
suite of applications is analyzed, and in Section 5, the pilot experiment and its results are
presented. In Section 6, the discussion of the research work is analyzed, and finally, in
Section 7, the conclusions as well as future work are presented.
2. Augmented Reality Game-Based Learning
AR is an emerging technology, which has great potential. Although the first AR
applications appeared in the late 1960s [12], it has become more pervasive and affordable
in recent years due to the widespread use of mobile devices [13]. AR essentially blends
virtual worlds into real ones, by allowing the user to explore, manipulate and interact in
a seamless way with both digital and natural objects in real time [14,15]. Additionally,
it allows them to envision objects in different situations and receive immediate visual
feedback about their actions in a totally safe environment [12]. Therefore, AR improves
learners’ ability to understand abstract and complex concepts [16], since it can provide
enriched experiential and in situ learning experiences [12].
Another learning approach that takes advantage of experiential learning theory is
game-based learning (GBL), which uses specially designed games to improve the learning
process [17]. One of the advantages of GBL is that through games, users construct their own
knowledge and develop the ability to transfer it to other contexts, rather than passively
absorbing a new concept, a pillar that the traditional educational process supports [18].
Therefore, of particular relevance to the education sector are the two aforementioned pedagogical
approaches which both enhance the learning experience and learners’ effectiveness
by actively engaging them.
The term ARGBL, which is basically the integration of AR into GBL, is gaining more and
more pace nowadays. According to Pellas et al.’s [19] systematic review, some of the most
popular domains of ARGBL use in primary and secondary school education are formal science
[20–23], natural science [24–27], physical science [15,28–31] and social science [32–34].
Additionally, problem solving, performance, motivation, satisfaction, creativity and collaboration
[33] are, among others, benefits of ARGBL in the learning experience.
Computers 2021, 10, 126 3 of 14
3. Review
Several previous studies have been conducted to explore the use, benefits and limitations
or challenges of AR and ARGBL at all levels of education in the domain of physical
science (such as physics, astronomy and chemistry). More specifically, Enyedy et al. [15]
developed an AR environment to teach Newtonian force and motion to young children, 6–8
years old. During the activity, children had to predict how the forces would influence the
motion of an object (e.g., ball). The results showed that children made significant progress
in learning the content and improved their performance, since they engaged, explored and
reconstructed their conceptual knowledge through fruitful confrontation and discussion.
Additionally, Cai et al. [28] conducted a convex imaging experiment using AR technology,
in which the eighth graders explored basic concepts of physics (such as image distance
and focal distance) as well as abstract ones (such as what will happen when the object
moves closer to the lens). The findings revealed that the AR tool attracted their attention,
stimulated their interest and enhanced their learning. A few years later, Cai et al. [29] implemented
a system that integrates AR with natural interaction technology by using Kinect,
in teaching magnetic fields to students in grade 8. Students could trigger the magnetic
field in real time with a wave of their hand in front of the depth camera. The experimental
results stated that the system encouraged participants to learn more extensively through a
more intuitive way, by activating their motivation and interest in learning.
Regarding astronomy, Zhang et al. [30] designed an AR-based mobile digital armillary
sphere for astronomy. An intervention was organized for fifth grade elementary school
students, and the purpose was to examine if they could properly identify the constellations
through astronomical observation. The analysis indicated that the observation tool, which
is based on kinesthetic-style strategies, positively affected participants’ motivation and
engagement as well as improving their learning experience and observation skills.
Finally, Cai et al. [31] proposed an AR simulation system in which students could
control particles in micro-worlds and compose substances. This study was conducted in a
junior high school for the chemistry course. Through data analysis, the authors concluded
that the AR tool improved the learning outcome and helped students to develop different
skills such as problem solving and inquiry-based exploration skills.
Leveraging the aforementioned studies, AR and ARGBL have proved to be advantageous
in enhancing performance and learning experiences, developing skills (e.g., problem
solving, inquiry-based exploration, observation) and fostering motivation, engagement,
attention and interest. Moreover, through AR, students can learn and interact with virtual
and real objects in a more intuitive way. Therefore, teachers should integrate such
innovative applications which place emphasis on the design of more natural and realistic
representations of complicated problems of everyday life into the educational process.
However, AR and ARGBL pose some limitations and challenges. Due to the technologies’
novelty, proper training and guidance should be provided to both students and
teachers [29]. In addition, according to Tobar-Muñoz et al. [35], sometimes there is a gap
between designers and teachers in conceiving learning. It is thus important to involve both
designers and teachers in the design and development of such AR tools, in order to create
a proper learning experience in the classroom that would be only beneficial.
4. Application Description
An ARGBL application for the physics course of the fifth grade in a primary school
was developed and evaluated in the present paper. The application follows the new
technological developments of smart mobile devices and introduces the concept of AR to
the students. Since the purpose of the ARGBL application is both to educate and entertain,
a treasure hunt game was implemented, which allows students to interact with a digital
world and to manipulate virtual objects with the use of an AR device. They have to discover
all the materials in order to conduct the AR experiment, according to the instructions that
correspond to each experiment.
Computers 2021, 10, 126 4 of 14
4.1. System Overview
In this section, the system overview of the ARGBL application is presented. The
system consists of the following components: (a) a smartphone device (hardware), and
(b) the Unity platform (software), as shown in Figure 1. More analytically, the ARGBL
application was implemented using the free version of the Unity game engine and C#
as the programming language. The Unity platform was chosen because Unity software
is powerful, easy to use and free [36]. Vuforia SDK was also used to ensure a better AR
experience. At first, Unity sends the virtual content to the ARGBL application. Then, the
input device, which is the camera of the smartphone, scans the QR code of the textbook and
sends the real content to the ARGBL application. Subsequently, the ARGBL application
processes the virtual and the real contents and finally displays the augmented content
through the smartphone screen, which is the display device.
world and to manipulate virtual objects with the use of an AR device. They have to discover
all the materials in order to conduct the AR experiment, according to the instructions
that correspond to each experiment.
4.1. System Overview
In this section, the system overview of the ARGBL application is presented. The system
consists of the following components: a) a smartphone device (hardware), and b) the
Unity platform (software), as shown in Figure 1. More analytically, the ARGBL application
was implemented using the free version of the Unity game engine and C# as the programming
language. The Unity platform was chosen because Unity software is powerful,
easy to use and free [36]. Vuforia SDK was also used to ensure a better AR experience. At
first, Unity sends the virtual content to the ARGBL application. Then, the input device,
which is the camera of the smartphone, scans the QR code of the textbook and sends the
real content to the ARGBL application. Subsequently, the ARGBL application processes
the virtual and the real contents and finally displays the augmented content through the
smartphone screen, which is the display device.
Figure 1. Application components.
In Unity, there is a set of elements which together form a game. These elements play
a major role in making the game interactive as well as adding features that can vividly
express the objective of the game. The proposed ARGBL application includes the following
elements: 41 scenes, 88 scripts, 17 packages, hundreds of assets and thousands of 3D
gameobjects and prefabs.
4.2. Suite of Applications
The suite of applications is a collection of six experiments, where each experiment
corresponds to one of the six chapters of the fifth grade textbook. According to the curriculum
of the 2019–2020 school year, the chapters are: (a) material bodies, (b) energy, (c)
digestive system, (d) heat, (e) electricity and (f) light. More analytically, on the start screen
(Scene 1), there are six buttons which correspond to the chapters of the book (Figure 2).
By selecting a chapter, the application sends the user to the next scene (Scene 2), which is
composed of the available experiment.
According to the student’s choice, instructions are displayed (Scene 3) about how the
experiment will be performed using the AR technology. In the next scene (Scene 4), the
camera of the user’s device is activated, and by scanning the QR code of the textbook page
where the experiment is located, an AR door appears. Entering the door, the user is immersed
into a VR environment. There are hidden virtual objects that must be collected in
Figure 1. Application components.
In Unity, there is a set of elements which together form a game. These elements play
a major role in making the game interactive as well as adding features that can vividly
express the objective of the game. The proposed ARGBL application includes the following
elements: 41 scenes, 88 scripts, 17 packages, hundreds of assets and thousands of 3D
gameobjects and prefabs.
4.2. Suite of Applications
The suite of applications is a collection of six experiments, where each experiment
corresponds to one of the six chapters of the fifth grade textbook. According to the
curriculum of the 2019–2020 school year, the chapters are: (a) material bodies, (b) energy, (c)
digestive system, (d) heat, (e) electricity and (f) light. More analytically, on the start screen
(Scene 1), there are six buttons which correspond to the chapters of the book (Figure 2).
By selecting a chapter, the application sends the user to the next scene (Scene 2), which is
composed of the available experiment.
Computers 2021, 10, 126 5 of 14
displayed (Scene 6). The available experiments are performed differently by the user,
meaning that each experiment has a different process, instructions and learning outcomes.
Moreover, with the teacher’s guidance, a fruitful discussion takes place in order for students
to draw a conclusion. At the bottom of the screen, there is the “conclusion” button
which leads the student to the next and the last screen (Scene 7), which consists of the
conclusion. This represents the second part of the application which is for educational
purposes.
Figure 2. Application sub-components.
4.2.1. Experiments
As already mentioned, six (6) experiments were formulated, and each one consists of
Scenes 2–7 (Figure 2). Scenes 2, 3, 5 and 7 are almost the same in all experiments, with
minor changes in their content. The scenes that differ are Scene 4 and Scene 6. Table 1
analytically describes the process of each experiment.
Figure 2. Application sub-components.
According to the student’s choice, instructions are displayed (Scene 3) about how
the experiment will be performed using the AR technology. In the next scene (Scene 4),
the camera of the user’s device is activated, and by scanning the QR code of the textbook
page where the experiment is located, an AR door appears. Entering the door, the user is
immersed into a VR environment. There are hidden virtual objects that must be collected
in order for the educational experiment to be implemented, by using AR. At the bottom of
the screen, there is a list with all the materials of the experiment which are hidden behind
the AR door. In order for the user to proceed with the experiment, they must first collect all
the materials by clicking on them in the VR world. Then, the materials are automatically
checked in the list. It is basically a treasure hunt game, representing the first part of the
ARGBL application which is for entertainment purposes.
Once the student has collected all the necessary materials for the experiment, instructions
for the experiment that will be followed are displayed (Scene 5). After scanning the
QR code of the textbook page for the selected chapter again, the available experiment is displayed
(Scene 6). The available experiments are performed differently by the user, meaning
that each experiment has a different process, instructions and learning outcomes. Moreover,
with the teacher’s guidance, a fruitful discussion takes place in order for students to draw
a conclusion. At the bottom of the screen, there is the “conclusion” button which leads the
student to the next and the last screen (Scene 7), which consists of the conclusion. This
represents the second part of the application which is for educational purposes.
4.2.1. Experiments
As already mentioned, six (6) experiments were formulated, and each one consists
of Scenes 2–7 (Figure 2). Scenes 2, 3, 5 and 7 are almost the same in all experiments, with
minor changes in their content. The scenes that differ are Scene 4 and Scene 6. Table 1
analytically describes the process of each experiment.
Computers 2021, 10, 126 6 of 14
Table 1. Process of each experiment.
Scene
No
#1 Section:
Material
Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The
Food Journey
#4 Section:
Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and
Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent
and Non-Transparent Bodies
Scene4:QRCode
AR door and VR
room representing a
patisserie shop
AR door and VR
room that is a
warehouse
AR door and VR room
that looks like a living
room
AR door and VR room
that is a living room
AR door and VR room
that represents a
bedroom
AR door and VR room that looks
like a corporate office
Table 1. Process of each experiment.
No
Scene
#1 Section:
Material Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The Food
Journey
#4 Section: Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent and N
Transparent Bodies
Scene4:
QRCode
AR door and VR room representing
a patisserie shop
AR door and VR room that is
a warehouse
AR door and VR room that looks
like a living room
AR door and VR room that is a living
room
AR door and VR room that
represents a bedroom
AR door and VR room that looks like
corporate office
Scene6,step1:
ARexperiment
(a) AR table with all the products;
(b) 8 buttons corresponding
to the 8 product
combinations; and (c) “conclusion”
button
(a) AR circuit; (b) 2 buttons
corresponding to the two
modes (Connect/Disconnect);
and (c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with all the products is
displayed; (b) once the experiment
is completed, the “conclusion” button
appears
(a) AR electric stove with a water
pot and a thermometer; (b) start
button (5 min count starts); (c)
“conclusion” button (appears after
5 min)
(a) AR circuit; (b) 10 buttons
corresponding to the 10 materials;
(c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with a torch emitting lig
and a cardboard window; (b) 8 butto
corresponding to the 8 materials that m
be placed in the cardboard window;
“conclusion” button
Table 1. Process of each experiment.
No
Scene
#1 Section:
Material Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The Food
Journey
#4 Section: Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent and Non
Transparent BodiesScene4:
QRCode
AR door and VR room representing
a patisserie shop
AR door and VR room that is
a warehouse
AR door and VR room that looks
like a living room
AR door and VR room that is a living
room
AR door and VR room that
represents a bedroom
AR door and VR room that looks like a
corporate office
Scene6,step1:
ARexperiment
(a) AR table with all the products;
(b) 8 buttons corresponding
to the 8 product
combinations; and (c) “conclusion”
button
(a) AR circuit; (b) 2 buttons
corresponding to the two
modes (Connect/Disconnect);
and (c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with all the products is
displayed; (b) once the experiment
is completed, the “conclusion” button
appears
(a) AR electric stove with a water
pot and a thermometer; (b) start
button (5 min count starts); (c)
“conclusion” button (appears after
5 min)
(a) AR circuit; (b) 10 buttons
corresponding to the 10 materials;
(c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with a torch emitting light
and a cardboard window; (b) 8 buttons
corresponding to the 8 materials that mus
be placed in the cardboard window; (c)
“conclusion” button
Table 1. Process of each experiment.
No
Scene
#1 Section:
Material Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The Food
Journey
#4 Section: Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent and NonTransparent
Bodies
Scene4:
QRCode
AR door and VR room representing
a patisserie shop
AR door and VR room that is
a warehouse
AR door and VR room that looks
like a living room
AR door and VR room that is a living
room
AR door and VR room that
represents a bedroom
AR door and VR room that looks like a
corporate office
Scene6,step1:
ARexperiment
(a) AR table with all the products;
(b) 8 buttons corresponding
to the 8 product
combinations; and (c) “conclusion”
button
(a) AR circuit; (b) 2 buttons
corresponding to the two
modes (Connect/Disconnect);
and (c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with all the products is
displayed; (b) once the experiment
is completed, the “conclusion” button
appears
(a) AR electric stove with a water
pot and a thermometer; (b) start
button (5 min count starts); (c)
“conclusion” button (appears after
5 min)
(a) AR circuit; (b) 10 buttons
corresponding to the 10 materials;
(c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with a torch emitting light
and a cardboard window; (b) 8 buttons
corresponding to the 8 materials that must
be placed in the cardboard window; (c)
“conclusion” button
Table 1. Process of each experiment.
No
Scene
#1 Section:
Material Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The Food
Journey
#4 Section: Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent and NonTransparent
Bodies
Scene4:
QRCode
AR door and VR room representing
a patisserie shop
AR door and VR room that is
a warehouse
AR door and VR room that looks
like a living room
AR door and VR room that is a living
room
AR door and VR room that
represents a bedroom
AR door and VR room that looks like a
corporate office
Scene6,step1:
ARexperiment
(a) AR table with all the products;
(b) 8 buttons corresponding
to the 8 product
combinations; and (c) “conclusion”
button
(a) AR circuit; (b) 2 buttons
corresponding to the two
modes (Connect/Disconnect);
and (c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with all the products is
displayed; (b) once the experiment
is completed, the “conclusion” button
appears
(a) AR electric stove with a water
pot and a thermometer; (b) start
button (5 min count starts); (c)
“conclusion” button (appears after
5 min)
(a) AR circuit; (b) 10 buttons
corresponding to the 10 materials;
(c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with a torch emitting light
and a cardboard window; (b) 8 buttons
corresponding to the 8 materials that must
be placed in the cardboard window; (c)
“conclusion” button
Table 1. Process of each experiment.
No
Scene
#1 Section:
Material Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The Food
Journey
#4 Section: Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent and NonTransparent
Bodies
Scene4:
QRCode
AR door and VR room representing
a patisserie shop
AR door and VR room that is
a warehouse
AR door and VR room that looks
like a living room
AR door and VR room that is a living
room
AR door and VR room that
represents a bedroom
AR door and VR room that looks like a
corporate office
Scene6,step1:
ARexperiment
(a) AR table with all the products;
(b) 8 buttons corresponding
to the 8 product
combinations; and (c) “conclusion”
button
(a) AR circuit; (b) 2 buttons
corresponding to the two
modes (Connect/Disconnect);
and (c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with all the products is
displayed; (b) once the experiment
is completed, the “conclusion” button
appears
(a) AR electric stove with a water
pot and a thermometer; (b) start
button (5 min count starts); (c)
“conclusion” button (appears after
5 min)
(a) AR circuit; (b) 10 buttons
corresponding to the 10 materials;
(c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with a torch emitting light
and a cardboard window; (b) 8 buttons
corresponding to the 8 materials that must
be placed in the cardboard window; (c)
“conclusion” button
Table 1. Process of each experiment.
No
Scene
#1 Section:
Material Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The Food
Journey
#4 Section: Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent and NonTransparent
Bodies
Scene4:
QRCode
AR door and VR room representing
a patisserie shop
AR door and VR room that is
a warehouse
AR door and VR room that looks
like a living room
AR door and VR room that is a living
room
AR door and VR room that
represents a bedroom
AR door and VR room that looks like a
corporate office
Scene6,step1:
ARexperiment
(a) AR table with all the products;
(b) 8 buttons corresponding
to the 8 product
combinations; and (c) “conclusion”
button
(a) AR circuit; (b) 2 buttons
corresponding to the two
modes (Connect/Disconnect);
and (c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with all the products is
displayed; (b) once the experiment
is completed, the “conclusion” button
appears
(a) AR electric stove with a water
pot and a thermometer; (b) start
button (5 min count starts); (c)
“conclusion” button (appears after
5 min)
(a) AR circuit; (b) 10 buttons
corresponding to the 10 materials;
(c) “conclusion” button
(a) AR table with a torch emitting light
and a cardboard window; (b) 8 buttons
corresponding to the 8 materials that must
be placed in the cardboard window; (c)
“conclusion” button
Scene6,step1:ARexperiment
(a) AR table with all
the products; (b)
8 buttons
corresponding to the
8 product
combinations; and (c)
“conclusion” button
(a) AR circuit; (b)
2 buttons
corresponding to the
two modes (Con-
nect/Disconnect);
and (c) “conclusion”
button
(a) AR table with all the
products is displayed; (b)
once the experiment is
completed, the
“conclusion” button
appears
(a) AR electric stove with
a water pot and a
thermometer; (b) start
button (5 min count
starts); (c) “conclusion”
button (appears after
5 min)
(a) AR circuit; (b) 10
buttons corresponding
to the 10 materials; (c)
“conclusion” button
(a) AR table with a torch
emitting light and a cardboard
window; (b) 8 buttons
corresponding to the8 materials
that must be placed in the
cardboard window;
(c) “conclusion” button
Computers 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o
Scene6,
step2:
Interac-
tion
Find 3 of the 8 combinations
with which the scale is bal-
anced
Interact with the AR circuit
and observe the light bulb in
both situations
Click on the materials in the correct
order to perform the experiment
Measure the temperature every minute
for 5 min
Select each one of the materials
and observe the behavior
of the light (if the light is on
or not)
Click on any material, put it between
torch and the cardboard window and
tice how much light passes through
Scene6,
step3:
Conclusion
“Mass is a characteristic property
of all bodies. When the
masses on the scale are equal,
then the scale is balanced.”
“The light does not illuminate
when the battery is disconnected
from the circuit.”
“Liquid dish soap dissolves oil, as saliva
helps break down food starch and
bile dissolves fats during digestion.”
“Part of the energy is released when the
gas burns. This part of the energy is absorbed
by the water. Therefore, the water
temperature rises.”
“The materials are classified into
conductors (if the light is on)
and insulators (if the light is
off).”
“Material bodies are characterized as trans
ent, semi-transparent and non-transpare
depending on the amount of light they allo
penetrate.”
Computers 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 1
Scene6,
step2:
Interac-
tion
Find 3 of the 8 combinations
with which the scale is bal-
anced
Interact with the AR circuit
and observe the light bulb in
both situations
Click on the materials in the correct
order to perform the experiment
Measure the temperature every minute
for 5 min
Select each one of the materials
and observe the behavior
of the light (if the light is on
or not)
Click on any material, put it between the
torch and the cardboard window and notice
how much light passes through
Scene6,
step3:
Conclusion
“Mass is a characteristic property
of all bodies. When the
masses on the scale are equal,
then the scale is balanced.”
“The light does not illuminate
when the battery is disconnected
from the circuit.”
“Liquid dish soap dissolves oil, as saliva
helps break down food starch and
bile dissolves fats during digestion.”
“Part of the energy is released when the
gas burns. This part of the energy is absorbed
by the water. Therefore, the water
temperature rises.”
“The materials are classified into
conductors (if the light is on)
and insulators (if the light is
off).”
“Material bodies are characterized as transpar
ent, semi-transparent and non-transparent,
depending on the amount of light they allow to
penetrate.”
Computers 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
Scene6,
step2:
Interac-
tion
Find 3 of the 8 combinations
with which the scale is bal-
anced
Interact with the AR circuit
and observe the light bulb in
both situations
Click on the materials in the correct
order to perform the experiment
Measure the temperature every minute
for 5 min
Select each one of the materials
and observe the behavior
of the light (if the light is on
or not)
Click on any material, put it between the
torch and the cardboard window and notice
how much light passes through
Scene6,
step3:
Conclusion
“Mass is a characteristic property
of all bodies. When the
masses on the scale are equal,
then the scale is balanced.”
“The light does not illuminate
when the battery is disconnected
from the circuit.”
“Liquid dish soap dissolves oil, as saliva
helps break down food starch and
bile dissolves fats during digestion.”
“Part of the energy is released when the
gas burns. This part of the energy is absorbed
by the water. Therefore, the water
temperature rises.”
“The materials are classified into
conductors (if the light is on)
and insulators (if the light is
off).”
“Material bodies are characterized as transparent,
semi-transparent and non-transparent,
depending on the amount of light they allow to
penetrate.”
Computers 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
Scene6,
step2:
Interac-
tion
Find 3 of the 8 combinations
with which the scale is bal-
anced
Interact with the AR circuit
and observe the light bulb in
both situations
Click on the materials in the correct
order to perform the experiment
Measure the temperature every minute
for 5 min
Select each one of the materials
and observe the behavior
of the light (if the light is on
or not)
Click on any material, put it between the
torch and the cardboard window and notice
how much light passes through
Scene6,
step3:
Conclusion
“Mass is a characteristic property
of all bodies. When the
masses on the scale are equal,
then the scale is balanced.”
“The light does not illuminate
when the battery is disconnected
from the circuit.”
“Liquid dish soap dissolves oil, as saliva
helps break down food starch and
bile dissolves fats during digestion.”
“Part of the energy is released when the
gas burns. This part of the energy is absorbed
by the water. Therefore, the water
temperature rises.”
“The materials are classified into
conductors (if the light is on)
and insulators (if the light is
off).”
“Material bodies are characterized as transparent,
semi-transparent and non-transparent,
depending on the amount of light they allow to
penetrate.”
Computers 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
Scene6,
step2:
Interac-
tion
Find 3 of the 8 combinations
with which the scale is bal-
anced
Interact with the AR circuit
and observe the light bulb in
both situations
Click on the materials in the correct
order to perform the experiment
Measure the temperature every minute
for 5 min
Select each one of the materials
and observe the behavior
of the light (if the light is on
or not)
Click on any material, put it between the
torch and the cardboard window and notice
how much light passes through
Scene6,
step3:
Conclusion
“Mass is a characteristic property
of all bodies. When the
masses on the scale are equal,
then the scale is balanced.”
“The light does not illuminate
when the battery is disconnected
from the circuit.”
“Liquid dish soap dissolves oil, as saliva
helps break down food starch and
bile dissolves fats during digestion.”
“Part of the energy is released when the
gas burns. This part of the energy is absorbed
by the water. Therefore, the water
temperature rises.”
“The materials are classified into
conductors (if the light is on)
and insulators (if the light is
off).”
“Material bodies are characterized as transparent,
semi-transparent and non-transparent,
depending on the amount of light they allow to
penetrate.”
Computers 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14
Scene6,
step2:
Interac-
tion
Find 3 of the 8 combinations
with which the scale is bal-
anced
Interact with the AR circuit
and observe the light bulb in
both situations
Click on the materials in the correct
order to perform the experiment
Measure the temperature every minute
for 5 min
Select each one of the materials
and observe the behavior
of the light (if the light is on
or not)
Click on any material, put it between the
torch and the cardboard window and notice
how much light passes through
Scene6,
step3:
Conclusion
“Mass is a characteristic property
of all bodies. When the
masses on the scale are equal,
then the scale is balanced.”
“The light does not illuminate
when the battery is disconnected
from the circuit.”
“Liquid dish soap dissolves oil, as saliva
helps break down food starch and
bile dissolves fats during digestion.”
“Part of the energy is released when the
gas burns. This part of the energy is absorbed
by the water. Therefore, the water
temperature rises.”
“The materials are classified into
conductors (if the light is on)
and insulators (if the light is
off).”
“Material bodies are characterized as transparent,
semi-transparent and non-transparent,
depending on the amount of light they allow to
penetrate.”
Computers 2021, 10, 126 7 of 14
Table 1. Cont.
Scene
No
#1 Section:
Material
Bodies—Mass
#2 Section:
Energy
#3 Section:
Digestive System—The
Food Journey
#4 Section:
Heat—Temperature
and Heat
#5 Section:
Electricity—
Conductors and
Insulators
#6 Section:
Light—
Transparent, Semi-Transparent
and Non-Transparent Bodies
Scene6,step2:Interaction
Find 3 of the 8
combinations with
which the scale is
balanced
Interact with the AR
circuit and observe
the light bulb in both
situations
Click on the materials in
the correct order to
perform the experiment
Measure the temperature
every minute for 5 min
Select each one of the
materials and observe
the behavior of the light
(if the light is on or not)
Click on any material, put it
between the torch and the
cardboard window and notice
how much light passes through
Scene6,step3:Conclusion
“Mass is a
characteristic property
of all bodies. When the
masses on the scale are
equal, then the scale is
balanced.”
“The light does not
illuminate when the
battery is disconnected
from the circuit.”
“Liquid dish soap dissolves
oil, as saliva helps break
down food starch and bile
dissolves fats
during digestion.”
“Part of the energy is
released when the gas
burns. This part of the
energy is absorbed by the
water. Therefore, the water
temperature rises.”
“The materials are classified
into conductors (if the light
is on) and insulators (if the
light is off).”
“Material bodies are characterized
as transparent, semi-transparent
and non-transparent, depending
on the amount of light they allow
to penetrate.”
Computers 2021, 10, 126 8 of 14
Two Indicative Examples
In this section, two indicative examples of the experiments are presented. Firstly, the
example of the “Electricity” experiment which belongs to the section of “Conductors and
Insulators” is described. This section begins with an introductory stimulus and is followed
by an experimental approach. More analytically, the introductory stimulus is presented
through a school textbook comic, where “Lampakis” and “Volfraimios” (Tungsten) are the
main characters. The following information is provided to the students: the material of
which the wire in incandescent bulbs is made is called tungsten. Then, the students are
asked to read the dialogues in the comic, in order to describe the problem that Lampakis
and Volfraimios are faced with. The problem is that the light bulb of the circuit they made
by using a rope instead of a cable does not light up. At the end of the introductory stimulus,
the teacher helps the students to make assumptions about possible materials that can be
used in a closed electrical circuit, in order to light the bulb.
The experimental approach that follows helps students find out that while some
materials allow electricity to flow, others do not. The materials of the experiment appear
through some virtual objects, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Objects and the materials they are made of for the “Electricity” experiment.
Object Material
Aluminum refreshment can Aluminum
Spoon Steel
Glass Glass
Ring Silver
Straw Plastic
Baby’s dummy Rubber
Beanie Cloth
Wood Wood
Pencil Graphite
Wires Copper
The AR experiment is carried out with the guidance of the book and the teacher.
At first, an electrical circuit is displayed above the QR code of the textbook, using the
technology of AR. In addition, at the top of the screen, there are ten buttons that correspond
to the ten materials/objects of the experiment. By selecting each button, the corresponding
object is placed between the connectors of the electrical circuit. The student, after observing
the behavior of the light, notes down the materials with which the light can be turned on
or not in the provided table of the textbook. The teacher leads a discussion in the class,
through which the students will formulate the conclusion. The teacher also introduces the
terms of “conductor” and “insulator” and explains them to the students. The teacher then
urges them to classify the materials studied in the above experiment into conductors and
insulators. Finally, the following conclusion is drawn in the school textbook:
• Conductors: aluminum foil, steel, silver, graphite and copper.
• Insulators: glass, plastic, rubber, cloth and wood.
At the bottom of the screen, there is a “conclusion” button, which leads to the next
screen which consists of the conclusion of the experiment, for the students to check the
correctness of their answers. After completing the above experiment, the learning objectives
that are desired to be achieved by the students are to experimentally establish the existence
of conducting and non-conducting materials and to understand the concepts of conductors
and insulators.
Another indicative example, which is the experiment of the “Digestive system” experiment
which belongs to the section of “The food journey”, is presented. Similar to the
previous example, it includes two parts, the stimulus and the experiment. In the introductory
stimulus, the students are asked to chew bread. Then, it is explained by the teacher
that bread contains a substance called starch, and it is stated that saliva breaks down food
Computers 2021, 10, 126 9 of 14
starch. The following experiment helps the students to understand the above introductory
stimulus, by drawing a parallel between saliva (which breaks down starch) and liquid dish
soap (which breaks down oil).
At first, a table in which all the materials of the experiment are placed is displayed
above the QR code of the textbook, using the technology of AR. The goal of the experiment
is that the student, after carefully reading the instructions provided by the textbook, has to
“click” on the materials placed in the AR table in the correct order. At the top of the screen,
there is a text prompting the student to “Click on the materials in the correct order to
perform the experiment”. The correct order, according to the presentation of the textbook,
is: water, oil, straw, liquid dish soap and straw. The experiment consists of the steps shown
in Table 3. At first, a glass is filled halfway with water, and then a few drops of oil are
added. The students have to mix the solution well with the straw. They should also notice
that the oil does not dissolve in the water, but floats on it. In the second phase of the
experiment, a small amount of liquid soap is poured into the glass with water and oil, and
after mixing well with the straw, it should be observed by the students that after adding
the dishwashing liquid, the oil dissolves and mixes with the water. Finally, the students
learn the usefulness of saliva for the dissolution of food starch and the usefulness of bile in
the function of digestion.
Table 3. The experiment for “Digestive system” step by step.
No. of Step Click on Action
#1 Water bottle Put water into the glass
#2 Oil Put oil into the glass
#3 Straw Stir the mixture
#4 Dish soap Put liquid into the glass
#5 Straw Stir the mixture
The conclusion is established with appropriate questions and discussion in class.
Students should be aware that the effect of liquid dish soap on oil is the same as the effect of
bile on food fats. Finally, students are asked to formulate the following conclusion: “Liquid
dish soap dissolves oil, as saliva helps break down food starch and bile dissolves fats
during digestion”. Once step 5 is completed, the “conclusion” button appears at the bottom
of the screen, which leads to the screen with the final conclusion. Moreover, students can
check if their answers are correct.
All the experiments are available online (Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=0ST0fkDIFEY, accessed 6 August 2021 and Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=8jnbmKPim5U, accessed 6 August 2021).
5. Pilot Experiment
The pilot experiment was conducted through a combination of qualitative and quantitative
methods. An unstructured interview along with participant observation was carried
out to gather qualitative data. This combination of methods aimed to gain insight about
the experience of both students and teachers. Regarding the quantitative method, a questionnaire
was administered to all participants aiming to evaluate the system’s usability. For
the system’s usability, we used the system usability scale (SUS) which was developed by
Brooke [37] as a quick and dirty survey to evaluate the usability of a given system. The SUS
test was used because (a) it provides a single score, (b) it is technology-independent and
this makes it quite flexible for the system we had to evaluate, (c) it is easy to handle, (d) the
questionnaire is nonproprietary and this makes it cost-effective, (e) it is highly effective in
terms of reliability [38] and validity [39], (f) it is translated in Greek [40] and (g) it provides
reliable results even with a small sample size [39].
Computers 2021, 10, 126 10 of 14
5.1. Participants
The study took place at an Elementary School of, Thessaloniki, Greece, during the
winter period (January 2021). Fourteen (14) students and three (3) teachers participated in
the study. The average age of the students was 10 years. The three teachers who took part
in the experiment process had extensive teaching experience (more than 10 years).
All students and teachers volunteered to participate in the activity as part of their
everyday school activities. Before the experiment took place, there was a training session
with the teachers of the classroom about the implementation of the experiment. The experiment
was part of the current school curriculum so that the flow of the school curriculum
would not be disturbed, and it was performed within the class hour (duration of 45 min).
The students were randomly assigned to work in dyads, forming seven (7) student groups
in total, while teachers participated as instructors.
5.2. Setting
Experiments were conducted in classrooms that were offered by schools for this
purpose. The classrooms were adequately arranged so that the system was accessible for all
students. The system was projected on the whiteboard of the classroom, by the instructor,
to be visible to everyone. Additionally, the system was provided to each student group
through a smart mobile device.
5.3. Material and Procedure
Students, their parents and teachers were informed about the pilot study one week
before the experiment. The lesson was started with an introductory stimulus related to
the experiment by the teacher/instructor. Then, the instructor provided instructions and
guidelines to the students on how to use the system. The execution steps of the experiment
were displayed simultaneously on both the whiteboard of the classroom through the
projector, and the screen of the mobile of each dyad of students.
Data were collected through an unstructured interview, participant observation and a
questionnaire. Specifically, during the experiment, participants were observed regarding
how they react and behave. At the end of the experiment, questionnaires were distributed
to both students and teachers in printed form and were answered individually. The
completion of the questionnaires was conducted in the same classroom, always in visual
contact with the system. After that, an unstructured interview was carried out with the
three (3) teachers.
The collected data from questionnaires were organized in Microsoft Excel 2019 and
were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics v23.0. The system usability scale (SUS) test
was translated in Greek and was administered to the students in printed form after the
interaction with the system.
6. Results and Discussion
6.1. Evaluation of Quantitative Method
The data collected from the questionnaires in the pilot, along with the mean values
and standard deviations for the students and teachers in each question, are presented in
Table 4. The overall SUS score was 84.642 (sd 5.773) for the students, while the score for the
teachers was 78.333 (sd 10.735). In both cases, the score is quite satisfactory and shows that
the system was quite usable for both students and teachers.
Computers 2021, 10, 126 11 of 14
Table 4. Mean values and standard deviations of students’ and teachers’ responses.
Item English Version of SUS
Student
Responses
Mean (Std)
Teacher
Responses
Mean (Std)
Q1
I think that I would like to use this
system frequently
4.071 (0.997) 4.6667 (0.577)
Q2 I found the system unnecessarily complex 1.285 (0.611) 1.6667 (0.577)
Q3 I thought the system was easy to use 4.5 (0.854) 4.0000 (0.000)
Q4
I think that I would need the support of a
technical person to be able to use
this system
1.785 (1.050) 2.3333 (1.527)
Q5
I found the various functions in this system
were well integrated
4.571 (0.646) 4.0000 (0.000)
Q6
I thought there was too much inconsistency
in this system
1.785 (1.050) 2.3333 (0.577)
Q7
I would imagine that most people would
learn to use this system very quickly
4.714 (0.468) 4.3333 (0.577)
Q8 I found the system very cumbersome to use 1.357 (0.497) 1.6667 (0.577)
Q9 I felt very confident using the system. 4.428 (0.755) 4.0000 (1.000)
Q10
I needed to learn a lot of things before I
could get going with this system.
2.214 (1.476) 2.3333 (0.577)
More analytically, the average SUS score of the ARGBL application is acceptable for
teachers (over 75), while the score for students is relatively high (84.642). This could be
explained by the fact that the system worked properly. Although the experiment was
successful for both students and teachers, there was a concern about how the students
would manage to use the system to conduct the physics experiment. The fact that students
are familiar with such devices along with the daily usage of them made it easier for them
to handle the device and successfully complete the experiment. However, this led the
students to ask questions about the process of the experiment, e.g., how to collect the
experiments’ materials from the VR room. Although there were written instructions on
the screen, students were overwhelmed by the virtual world and, as a result, did not read
them. A possible solution to this could be the use of tablets, since the instructions on bigger
screens might easily be “caught by the eye”.
6.2. Evaluation of Qualitative Method
Based on the observation data, we noticed that most of the students had the curiosity
to try new activities, including conducting experiments using the AR technology through
smart devices. Therefore, teachers should try innovative instructional methods, tailored to
new requirements relating to the ARGBL application. It is worth mentioning that teachers
should conduct a training session for students about how to use the system and how to
interact with the QR code, before the experiment takes place. In addition, the performance
of QR code recognition is mainly based on lighting conditions. The virtual objects formed
under weak light conditions may twinkle at times. As a result, teachers are required to
adapt the classroom properly in terms of lighting.
According to the unstructured interview with the teachers about their experience,
they supported that the group of two students rather than larger groups is more preferable.
It was also mentioned that small groups (two or three students) work better than larger
groups, not only in the collaboration between the team members but also in the time that
the system is used by each member, a fact that positively triggers students’ motivation,
engagement and teamwork. Nonetheless, groups of two students would require a lot of
equipment (number of smart devices), in the case of a larger sample. Last but not least,
the teachers agreed on the fact that the ARGBL application is more advantageous, since it
can run offline, without the need of an internet connection. This makes it a lot easier to
be used in areas of limited WiFi or data connectivity, such as schools. The students can
use the ARGBL application instantly without any delays or internet difficulties. On the
Computers 2021, 10, 126 12 of 14
other hand, applications that work offline do not provide the functionality of interaction to
users. In the ARGBL application, the interaction between users is conducted face to face
in a classroom. This means that a discussion between the students as well as between the
teacher and the students is necessary to evolve the learning process.
7. Conclusions and Future Work
Leveraging the aforementioned findings, an ARGBL application was proposed for the
implementation of physics experiments in the fifth grade of a Greek primary school. The application
is both educational and entertaining, since the students have to conduct a physics
experiment by playing an AR treasure hunt game. A pilot experiment was conducted, and
a questionnaire was administered to all participants, both students and teachers, in order to
investigate the usability of the system. Moreover, this study explored the opinions and the
preferences of the participants by the process of unstructured interviews and observations.
The results of the pilot experiment are very promising, since the system’s usability was
satisfactory, revealing that the proposed ARGBL application can provide added value to
the educational community. More specifically, what we learned, which is in accordance
with the literature review, is that students had a positive attitude towards using the system
for their learning process since they fully engaged with it [15,28,30]. In addition, both
teachers and students supported that the use of the ARGBL application can attract students’
attention and increase their learning motivation [10,29,30,33] in the physics course. Finally,
a well-structured experiment should be followed by the teachers, including a training
session of how students can use the system, how they can interact with the QR code and
what the process of the experiment is.
However, the proposed system has some limitations that merit further consideration
in future work. Firstly, although our analysis is robust in small samples, a larger-scale
experiment is necessary. In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, it was hard to have an
adequate sample size, due to fact that the Greek schools, most of the school year, were
closed. Secondly, the ARGBL application refers to a specific subject, namely, physics
experiments in the fifth grade of a Greek primary school; therefore, the research results
cannot be generalized to other learning topics and to other age groups. Therefore, our
future plans are to extend the learning content of our proposed ARGBL application to
other age groups by adding more exercises and experiments. Additionally, a long-term
experiment would be necessary to further investigate the usability of the system and to
extract valuable results about the learning outcomes of the students.
Author Contributions: M.Z. implemented the application and, together with C.V., E.K., T.S., conceived,
designed and wrote this paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of
the Declaration of Helsinki and followed the regulations of the National Bioethics Committee. In
our study the issue of personal data protection was confronted by keeping the anonymity of the
participants, while informed con-sent was obtained.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors of the paper wish to warmly thank the anonymous reviewers for
their constructive comments, along with the teachers and director of the school for the hospitality
and support offered.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Computers 2021, 10, 126 13 of 14
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