Basics of Educational Assessment - study guide

Session 4: Diagnostic methods - Observation

Some scholars talk about the concept of living in a "society of conversation" (e.g., Kvale, 2009), highlighting an interview as a distinct form of communication that profoundly influences various aspects of our lives. In the realm of education, several types of  interviews can be identified.

- Diagnostic (cognitive)  interview s: These focus on probing personal motives, beliefs, experiences, preconceptions, opinions, or values of an individual, as well as their relationships with others (such as parents, classmates, and teachers). They delve into facts regarding personal, health, family, or social history, as well as the processes, methods, and outcomes of learning. Diagnostic conversations facilitate information gathering through direct personal interaction between the interviewer and the respondent.

- Research  interviews: These contribute to the investigation of specific questions aimed at enhancing understanding or gaining insights into social reality. They contextualize an individual's subjective perspective on a particular event, process, or phenomenon.

- Corrective (remedial)  interviews: The primary objective of these conversations is to positively influence the development of an individual's personality and social situation, drawing from insights gained through the diagnostic process.

The boundaries between these different types of  interview s are fluid. The key distinction between diagnostic and research  interview s lies in the fact that diagnostic  interviews uncover specific facts that inform interventions, particularly in supporting an individual's educational journey (e.g., establishing support measures).

Types of Observation
a) According to the degree of structuring, we distinguish structured, semi-structured, and unstructured observations.

- Structured observation

In fully structured observation, we work with a pre-established list of phenomena or expressions that we aim to observe. We monitor whether this phenomenon appears or not, or we focus on its frequency and intensity of occurrence. Typically, the results of the observation are recorded in a record sheet.

- Semi-structured observation

With this type of observation, we have an idea of what we need to observe, but we also pay attention to other manifestations that currently occur. 

- Unstructured observation

This type of observation is focused on any behavioral expressions that we observe in the target individual or group of individuals. The observation is guided only by generally defined questions. Records from unstructured observation, which often have the character of brief notes directing our further diagnostic activity, can be written in a diary or record card (Syslová et al., 2018).

 

b) Based on the level of the diagnostician's involvement in the observed activities, we distinguish between participatory and non-participatory observation.

- In participatory observation, the diagnostician is present in the observed events, entering them with varying intensity (i.e., they may intervene only partially or intensively).

- In non-participatory observation, the diagnostician is either not present at all concerning the observed event (e.g., observing from a recording), or they are physically relatively distant from the observed activity.

 

c) Depending on whether the diagnostician was physically present during the observation or not, we distinguish between direct and indirect observation.

- If the diagnostician is physically present during the observation, we refer to it as direct observation.

- If, for example, the observation uses a video recording or another means of mediating the observation of individuals, it is the second type, indirect observation. (see Švaříček & Šeďová, 2014)

 

d) Based on the openness with which the diagnostician communicates their diagnostic intention and identity to the subject, we differentiate between open and covert observation.

- In open observation, the participants of the diagnosis are openly informed about the role of the diagnostician.

- In covert observation, the identity of the diagnostician is concealed.

 

e) Based on the number of individuals being observed, we distinguish between individual and group observation.

- In individual observation, the diagnostician works with only one person.

- In group observation, more individuals are the subject of the diagnosis.

 

In professional diagnostic literature, other types of observation appear (or other designations for the types of observation listed above), such as short-term versus long-term, random versus systematic (Zelinková, 2007), free versus targeted (Svoboda, 2015), etc.

What can we observe through observation? 

We can observe the behavior of the teacher, an individual student, or a group of students in various settings. Often, a specific student draws our attention with their behavior or academic performance, prompting us to focus on them in pedagogical diagnosis. For instance, we seek answers to inquiries such as: How does the student react to the introduction of new material? What is their facial expression? How do they respond to success or failure? How long can they maintain focus? Are they able to engage in class discussions? Can they demonstrate appreciation for their classmates or express constructive feedback? Have there been any recent changes in the student's appearance or attitude towards the subject?

When observing the entire class, we may inquire about: Are the students adhering to classroom rules? Can they effectively collaborate in randomly formed groups? How does the class respond to the struggles of individual students? How do they react to changes? (as per Mertin & Krejčová, 2016)

- Unstructured observation

This form of observation concentrates on any observed behavioral expressions exhibited by the targeted individual or group. The observation is guided solely by broadly defined questions. Notes from unstructured observation, typically serving as concise pointers for our subsequent diagnostic endeavors, can be documented in a journal or record card (Syslová et al., 2018).

Observed phenomena may encompass:

- Appearance: physical characteristics, hairstyle, attire, etc.

- Behavior:

  - Facial expressions: facial demeanor.

  - Body language: gait, posture, movement speed, coordination.

  - Gestures: hand and arm movements.

  - Speech: volume, pace, formality, linguistic diversity, tonal qualities.

  - Emotional expressions: physiological indicators (pallor, flushing, perspiration, etc.), frequency and intensity of emotions, emotional regulation, predominant mood.

  - Social conduct: interpersonal dynamics (underestimation of others, self-aggrandizement, feelings of inadequacy, prosocial behavior, competitive tendencies).

  - Interaction with objects: handling of tools, meticulousness, caution, carelessness, tidiness, engagement with toys, response to encouragement or aggression towards objects.

  - Self-perception: confidence, ambition, self-assessment.  (Svoboda et al., 2015)

How to Record Observed Phenomena? 

During observation, it's essential to recognize that we document what we see and hear. There are various methods for record-keeping, and the chosen method depends on the nature of our observation. We can document which phenomena occur, their duration, whether naturally or according to predetermined rules, such as within specific time intervals. In educational practice, natural recording of the occurrence and duration of phenomena is more commonly employed.

Each data record should include details about the location and time of observation, the subject under observation, methodological notes, and the observer responsible for recording the observation. Additionally, it's advisable to provide a brief description of the observed situation and summarize the findings of our observation (Syslová et al., 2018).

For inspiration and deeper analysis of observable phenomena, observation systems like Bellack's (Bellack et al., 1966) or Flanders' (1970), or their contemporary adaptations, such as Svatoš (2011), can be utilized. An example of an observation system focused on analyzing verbal interactions between teachers and students is the Bellack system, which enables the documentation of classroom dynamics during instruction, recording events as they unfold. The Bellack approach facilitates the description of educational communication through six categories:

1. Speaker/subject of activity,

2. Type of communication activity,

3. Teaching material and its characteristics,

4. Logical operations with the teaching material,

5. Teaching method,

6. Logical operations involved in teaching (Mareš, 2016).

Other tools for recording observations include observation sheets, educational diaries, classroom maps, and various student-related records.

A classroom map can be utilized during observations to mark elements such as the frequency of teacher-student communication, the teacher's movements around the classroom, forms of support for different student groups, and student activities (e.g., participation, raising hands), among other factors.

Outcomes of Diagnostic Observation

Following the actual observation, it is essential to conduct an analysis of the gathered data and interpret them accordingly. During interpretation, it's important to note that we typically observe only the outward manifestations of behavior, rather than directly accessing its underlying causes, such as emotions. The insights derived from observation can aid educators in managing the classroom, understanding students better, identifying strategies for more effective student engagement, or determining suitable interventions. Despite observation appearing to be a straightforward diagnostic approach, it undeniably requires practice and experience. It's advisable to involve another colleague (e.g., teacher, assistant, educational counselor, prevention methodologist, school psychologist) for collaborative analysis. Additionally, video recordings can be beneficial, but it's crucial to adhere to the established rules governing their creation and usage.

Předchozí
Následující