www.pearson-books.com
John Maltby, Liz Day
and Ann Macaskill
Second EditionSecond Edition
Personality,
Individual Differences
and IntelligenceMaltby,Day
andMacaskill
Personality,IndividualDifferences
andIntelligenceSecondEdition
Richly illustrated and packed with examples, Personality, Individual Differences and Intelligence, Second
edition, continues to offer accessible and in-depth coverage of the major theories, methods, findings and
debates in this fascinating subject.
Dr John Maltby is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the University of Leicester.
Dr Liz Day is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at Sheffield Hallam University.
Professor Ann Macaskill is at Sheffield Hallam University and is a Chartered
Health Psychologist.
Cover image © Getty Images
This comprehensive new edition includes:
• Four new chapters, covering Health and illness, Well-being and personality disorders,
Ideas and debates in personality, and Psychometric testing.
• Extensively revised and updated chapters which include the latest research throughout.
• A range of features to stimulate and support learning, such as highlighted Key terms and
Connecting up, which links different topics covered in the book.
Visit the companion website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby to
explore resources including:
• Three additional chapters: Academic Argument and Thinking, Statistical Terms, and
Research Ethics.
• Weblinks and commentary on online journals to help students better understand
the research process.
• Exam and essay questions to allow students to consolidate their understanding.
‘Expertly tailored towards the needs of the student of personality, intelligence and
individual differences… comprehensive, up to date and very clearly set out with a wealth
of supplementary material.’
Dr Teresa Rushe, University of Ulster
‘A wonderful companion for students taking courses in individual differences. Strengthened
by its international scope and helpful learning aids, this is a useful reference work for students
throughout their studies.’
Dr Susan Rasmussen, University of Strathclyde
‘Provides a modern, international coverage of the key issues in individual differences
research. It looks great, offers valuable and extensive study aids and fits our course
requirements exactly.’
Professor Paddy O’Donnell, University of Glasgow
‘There are many textbooks on this topic,
but few as comprehensive and accessible.’
Dr Marcus Munafò, University of Bristol
CVR_MALT2908_02_SE_CVR.indd 1 29/10/09 10:46:37
Guided Tour xvii
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxv
Part 1 Personality 1
1 Personality Theory in Context 2
Key themes 2
Learning outcomes 2
Introduction 3
General population perspectives: implicit
personality theories 3
Problems with implicit theories 4
How is personality defined? 4
Lay definitions of personality 4
Psychological definitions of personality 5
The aims of studying personality 5
The source of the term ‘personality’ 7
Approaches to studying personality:
idiographic versus nomothetic 8
Describing personality 9
Distinctions and assertions in personality research 9
Effects of personality versus situational effects 10
Measurement issues 11
Strands of personality theorising 11
The clinical approach and its history 11
Individual differences’ emphasis on personality
and its history 12
Studying personality as a personal experience 13
Reading critically and evaluating theories 14
The cultural context of personality theories 17
Final comments 18
Summary 18
Connecting up 18
Critical thinking 18
Going further 19
2 The Basis of the Psychoanalytic
Approach to Personality 20
Key themes 20
Learning outcomes 20
Introduction 21
Description of Freud’s theory of personality 21
Levels of consciousness 21
The nature of human beings and the source
of human motivation 23
The structure of the personality 25
The development of personality 26
Defence mechanisms 29
Repression 30
Denial 30
Projection 30
Reaction formation 31
Rationalisation 31
Conversion reaction 31
Phobic avoidance 32
Displacement 32
Regression 32
Isolation 32
Undoing 32
Sublimation 33
Clinical applications of Freudian theory 33
Evaluation of Freudian theory 34
Description 34
Explanation 35
Empirical validity and testable concepts 35
Comprehensiveness 37
Parsimony 37
Heuristic value 37
Applied value 37
Contents
3 Developments of Freudian Theorising 42
Key themes 42
Learning outcomes 42
Introduction 43
Individual psychology of Alfred Adler 44
Inferiority feelings 44
Personality development in Adlerian terms 45
Birth order 46
Characteristics of the neurotic personality 46
Adlerian treatment approaches 47
Evaluation of Adler’s individual psychology theory 48
Carl Jung and analytic psychology 49
Structures within the psyche 50
Jungian personality types 53
Jung’s conception of mental illness and its treatment 55
Evaluation of Jung’s theory 56
The psychology of Karen Horney 57
Essentials of Horney’s theoretical position 58
The development of the personality and
the neurotic personality 58
Final comments 37
Summary 38
Connecting up 39
Critical thinking 39
Going further 40
Film and literature 41
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Defence mechanisms 61
Penis envy and female masochism 63
Evaluation of Horney’s theory 64
Final comments 66
Summary 66
Connecting up 67
Critical thinking 67
Going further 68
Film and literature 69
4 Learning Theory Perspectives
on Personality 70
Key themes 70
Learning outcomes 70
Introduction 71
Introduction to learning theory 72
The clinical perspective within classical conditioning 74
The radical behaviourism of B. F. Skinner 75
Attempts to apply learning theory approaches
to personality 78
The stimulus–response model of personality
of Dollard and Miller 79
Albert Bandura and social learning theory 81
Learning within Bandura’s model 83
Personality development in social learning theory 84
Self-efficacy as a self-regulatory process 84
Increasing self-efficacy ratings 85
Measuring self-efficacy 86
Julian Rotter and locus of control 87
The impact of locus of control on behaviour 88
Walter Mischel 90
The impact of Mischel 94
Evaluation of learning theory approaches 94
Description 94
Explanation 95
Empirical validity 95
Testable concepts 96
Comprehensiveness 96
Parsimony 96
Heuristic value 96
Applied value 97
Final comments 97
Summary 97
Connecting up 98
Critical thinking 99
Going further 99
Film and literature 100
5 Cognitive Personality Theories 102
Key themes 102
Learning outcomes 102
Introduction 103
Theory of personal constructs of George A. Kelly 104
The view of the person in Kelly’s theory 104
Concepts within Kelly’s theory 104
Personality development according to Kelly 109
Assessing personality in personal construct theory 109
Clinical applications of personal construct theory 111
Albert Ellis and Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy 112
Origins of the theory of Rational-Emotive
Behaviour Therapy 112
Rational and irrational thoughts 114
The importance of perception and
the subjective worldview 115
Development of the individual 118
The basic model of Rational-Emotive
Behaviour Therapy 119
Sources of psychological disturbance 120
Applications of Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy 120
Research evidence for effectiveness of
Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy 121
Contentious issues 121
Overall evaluation of cognitive approaches 121
Description 121
Explanation 121
Empirical validity 122
Testable concepts 122
Comprehensiveness 122
Parsimony 122
Heuristic value 122
Applied value 122
Final comments 122
Summary 123
Connecting up 123
Critical thinking 124
Going further 124
Film and literature 125
6 Humanistic Personality Theories 126
Key themes 126
Learning outcomes 126
Introduction 127
Historical roots and key elements of
the humanistic approach 128
Abraham Maslow and self-actualisation 128
Human nature and human motivation 128
Hierarchy of needs 130
Discussion of basic needs 132
Characteristics of self-actualisers 132
Personality development 134
Mental illness and its treatment in
Maslow’s approach 134
Evaluation of Maslow’s theory 135
Carl Rogers and person-centred therapy 136
Basic principles underlying the theory 137
Self-actualisation 137
Effect of society on self-actualisation 138
Developmental impact on the child of
their parent’s self-concept 140
The role of the actualising tendency
in development 141
Rogers’ conceptualisation of
psychological problems 143
The principles of Rogerian counselling 143
The role of the therapist or counsellor 144
Evaluation of Rogers’ theory 147
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Final comments 149
Summary 150
Connecting up 151
Critical thinking 151
Going further 152
Film and literature 152
7 The Trait Approach to Personality 154
Key themes 154
Learning outcomes 154
Introduction 155
Emergence of personality traits 156
Defining personality traits 157
The development of trait theories within psychology 157
Sheldon and somatypes 158
Early lexical approaches to personality and the lexical
hypothesis 158
Gordon Allport 159
Raymond Cattell and the emergence of
the factor analytic approach 161
Types of traits 162
Contribution of Cattell 165
Hans Eysenck’s trait theory of personality 166
Eysenck’s structure of personality 166
Research evidence for Eysenck’s types 169
Psychopathology and Eysenck’s
therapeutic approach 170
Eysenck’s contribution to trait theorising 170
The five-factor model 170
Evidential sources for the five-factor model 170
Evaluation of the Big Five and trait approaches 173
Final comments 174
Summary 174
Connecting up 175
Critical thinking 175
Going further 176
Film and literature 177
8 Biological Basis of Personality I:
Genetic Heritability of Personality
and Biological and Physiological
Models of Personality 178
Key themes 178
Learning outcomes 178
Introduction 179
Behavioural genetics 179
Behavioural genetics: basic ideas 179
How the influence of genes is assessed in
behavioural genetics 179
Methods for assessing genetic heritability
of personality 181
Genetic heritability estimates and personality 182
Considerations within behavioural genetics and
personality 185
Conceptions of genetic heritability and
the environment 186
Different types of genetic variance 186
Shared and non-shared environments 186
Problems with the representativeness of twin
and adoption studies 191
Assortative mating 192
Changing world of genetics 192
A framework for considering heritability in personality 193
Psychophysiology, neuropsychology and personality 194
Eysenck’s biological model of personality and arousal 195
Gray’s BAS/BIS theory 197
Cloninger’s biological model of personality 200
Empirical evidence for biological theories of personality 201
The central nervous system and biological
personality dimensions 202
The autonomic nervous system and biological
personality dimensions 202
Consideration of biological theories of personality 203
Final comments 204
Summary 204
Connecting up 205
Critical thinking 205
Going further 206
Film and literature 206
9 Biological Basis of Personality II:
Evolutionary Psychology and Animal Studies
of Personality 208
Key themes 208
Learning outcomes 208
Introduction 209
Evolutionary theory 209
Evolutionary psychology and adaptation 210
Evolutionary personality and personality and
individual differences psychology 213
An introduction to evolutionary personality
psychology: Buss’ theory of personality
and adaptation 213
How individual differences arise through
cooperation: the example of leadership 214
Life history and personality 216
Consideration of the evolutionary theory
of personality 219
Animals and their personality 220
Animals and personality: a historical context 220
Within-species versus cross-species
comparisons 221
Methods in animal personality research 221
Reliability and validity of animal
personality research 222
Animal personality: the emergence of
the five-factor model of personality 223
Animal personality: informing evolutionary theories
of personality? 224
Consideration of animal personality research 224
Final comments 226
Summary 227
Connecting up 227
Critical thinking 228
Going further 228
Film and literature 229
CONTENTS ix
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10 Further Ideas and Debates in
Personality: Personality and Culture 230
Key themes 230
Learning outcomes 230
Introduction 231
A sixth personality factor? Expanding on the five-factor
model of personality. 232
The sixth factor of personality: honesty–humility?
The introduction of the HEXACO model of personality 232
Theory of the HEXACO model of personality structure 233
Gains and losses as part of the theoretical
interpretations of the HEXACO factors 234
Criticisms of the choice of honesty–humility and
HEXACO model of personality: ‘gone too far?’
or ‘not gone far enough?’ 235
The big one! The general factor of personality 236
Culture and personality 237
Psychological anthropology 237
Configurationalist approach 238
Basic and modal personality structure approach 238
National character 239
Personality and national culture: the work of Hofstede 242
Integrative model of personality 245
Evolution and human behaviour 245
The dispositional signature 246
Characteristic adaptations 247
Life narratives and the challenge of modern identity 247
The differential role of culture 248
Critiques of the integrative model of personality 249
Self-determination theory 251
The four theories of self-determination theory 251
Applications of self-determination theory 255
Considerations of self-determination theory:
the reward controversy and the eight criteria 256
Final comments 258
Summary 258
Connecting up 259
Critical thinking 259
Going further 260
Film and literature 260
Part 2 Intelligence 263
11 An Introduction to Intelligence 264
Key themes 264
Learning outcomes 264
Introduction 265
Why does intelligence matter? 265
Implicit theories of intelligence 266
Research into implicit theories of intelligence 266
Laypersons’ implicit theories of intelligence 266
Laypersons’ implicit theories across cultures 268
Implicit theories of intelligence across the life span 272
Expert conceptions of intelligence 274
A task force in intelligence 275
The focus of this part of the book 276
Final comments 278
Summary 278
Connecting up 278
Critical thinking 278
Going further 279
Film and literature 279
12 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence 280
Key themes 280
Learning outcomes 280
Introduction 281
The birth of the psychology of intelligence: Galton
and Binet 281
Galton 281
Binet 282
The search for measurement continues: the birth
of ‘IQ’ and standardised testing 283
Terman 283
Yerkes 284
General intelligence (g): the theory and
the measurement 285
‘g’ 286
Measuring ‘g’: the Wechsler and Raven’s matrices 286
Multifactor theorists: Thurstone, Cattell and Guilford 293
Thurstone: ‘g’ results from seven primary
mental abilities 294
Cattell: fluid and crystallised intelligence 294
Guilford: many different intelligences and
many different combinations 294
Intelligence and factor analysis – a third way: the
hierarchical approach 296
Vernon 296
Carroll: from the Three-Stratum Model of
Human Cognitive Abilities to CHC 297
Cattell, Horn and Carroll (CHC): theory,
research and practice together 297
Other theories of intelligence: Gardner
and Sternberg 300
Howard Gardner: multiple intelligences 300
Robert Sternberg 302
Final comments 304
Summary 305
Connecting up 305
Critical thinking 306
Going further 306
Film and literature 307
13 The Use of Intelligence Tests:
What Questions Emerge from
the Measurement of Intelligence? 308
Key themes 308
Learning outcomes 308
Introduction 309
Types of intelligence tests 309
The distinction between the psychometric and
the cognitive psychology approaches to
intelligence testing 310
Simple biological and physiological measures
of intelligence 310
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Alexander Romanovich Luria 311
Das and Naglieri’s Cognitive Assessment System
and the Kaufmans’ ability test 313
Features, uses and problems surrounding
intelligence tests 315
Typical features of intelligence tests 315
The uses of intelligence tests 318
Problems and issues with intelligence tests 320
The intelligent use of intelligence tests 323
Some concluding comments 324
The Flynn effect 324
How was the Flynn effect discovered? 324
Explanations of the Flynn effect 326
The nutrition hypothesis versus
the cognitive stimulation hypothesis 332
An end to the Flynn effect? 332
Final comments 333
Summary 333
Connecting up 334
Critical thinking 334
Going further 335
Film and literature 335
14 Heritability and Socially Defined Race
Differences in Intelligence 336
Key themes 336
Learning outcomes 336
Introduction 337
Section A – The heritability of intelligence 338
Intelligence: the nature versus nurture debate 338
Galton 338
Heritability of intelligence 338
What do we mean by heritability of intelligence? 339
Methods for assessing genetic heritability
of intelligence 340
Heritability estimates of intelligence 341
Considerations within behavioural genetics
and intelligence 342
Modern estimates of the genetic heritability
of intelligence 344
Environmental influences on intelligence 344
Biological variables and maternal effects 346
Nutrition 347
Lead 347
Prenatal factors 347
Maternal effects model 348
Family environment 348
Shared and non-shared environments 348
Within-family factors 349
Outside-family factors 351
Socioeconomic status of the family 352
Birth order, family size and intelligence 353
Education and intelligence 355
Culture and intelligence 356
Decontextualisation 356
Quantification 356
Biologisation 357
Final comments on genetic heritability and
environmental influences on intelligence 357
Section B – The bell curve: race differences
in intelligence 358
The bell curve 358
The bell curve: intelligence and
class structure in American life 358
The cognitive elite: looking at the higher end
of the bell curve 360
IQ scores and social and economic problems:
looking at the lower end of the bell curve 360
The relationship between race and IQ: implications
for social policy 361
Criticisms of The Bell Curve: Intelligence and
Class Structure in American Life 362
Analysis of the assumptions used by
Herrnstein and Murray 363
Statistical and evidence-based problems in
The Bell Curve arguments 366
A darker side of psychology related to
Herrnstein and Murray’s analysis 368
Final comments 370
Summary 371
Connecting up 371
Critical thinking 372
Going further 372
Film and literature 373
15 Further Discussions and Debates in
Intelligence: Sex Differences in Intelligence
and Emotional Intelligence 374
Key themes 374
Learning outcomes 374
Introduction 375
Sex differences in intelligence 375
Sex differences on measures of general intelligence 375
Sex differences in specific intelligences 377
Looking for explanations of sex differences
in measures of intelligence 379
Biological explanations for sex differences
in intelligence 380
Biological variables for sex differences
in measures of general intelligence 380
Biological variables for sex differences
in spatial intelligence 381
Summary of biological factors in sex differences
in intelligence 385
Environmental explanations for sex differences
in intelligence 385
Stereotypes and sex differences in intelligence
outside of education 385
Stereotypes and sex differences in intelligence
within education 387
Interactions between technology and
socioeconomic status and their influence
on intelligence in the classroom 388
A final consideration of sex differences in
measures of intelligence 389
Stereotype emphasis 389
Placing the extent of the sex differences in
intelligence within its proper context 390
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Interim Summary for sex differences
in intelligence 391
Emotional intelligence 391
Salovey and Mayer’s four-branch model
of emotional intelligence 392
Goleman’s model of emotional intelligence 394
Bar-On’s model of emotional intelligence 399
Providing contexts for understanding
the three models of emotional intelligence 399
The application of emotional intelligence
in psychology 402
Sex differences in emotional intelligence 403
Critical consideration of emotional intelligence
theory and research 404
Final comments 406
Summary 406
Connecting up 407
Critical thinking 407
Going further 408
Film and literature 409
16 The Application of Personality
and Intelligence in Education and
the Workplace: The Introduction of
Other Intelligences 410
Key themes 410
Learning outcomes 410
Introduction 411
Personality and intelligence predictors of
achievement in education and the workplace 411
Established measures of personality and
intelligence: predictors of achievement in
education and work 412
The difficulties with using established measures
of personality and intelligence in education
and work 414
Learning styles and experiential learning theory 416
Learning processes 416
Learning styles 417
Application and measurement of learning
processes and styles 418
Critical consideration of Kolb’s theory 419
Emotional intelligence in education and
the workplace 419
Goleman’s theory of emotional intelligence 419
Emotional intelligence and leadership 420
Emotional intelligence and self-learning 420
Consideration of emotional intelligence in
education and the workplace 421
Successful intelligence and leadership:
creativity, intelligence and wisdom 423
Creativity 423
Wisdom 427
Giftedness 429
Giftedness, termites and IQ scores 430
Modern conceptions of giftedness: not just high IQ? 430
Psychological models of giftedness 432
Summary of giftedness 434
Working with those who have learning disabilities 434
Working with those who have learning disabilities:
the darker historical line 434
Working with those who have learning disabilities:
the positive historical line 437
Feuerstein and Structural Cognitive Modifiability 437
Theory and programme of Structural Cognitive
Modifiability 438
Final comments 440
Summary 440
Connecting up 441
Critical thinking 441
Going further 441
Film and literature 442
Part 3 Further Debates and
Applications in Individual
Differences 445
17 Further Debates and Applications
in Individual Differences: An Introduction 446
Key themes 446
Learning outcomes 446
Introduction 447
Individual differences can be applied to improve
our understanding of psychological concepts 448
The nature of individual differences 449
How are individual differences identified
and measured? 450
How individual differences can be applied to
improve our understanding of competing
or overlapping concepts or topic areas 451
Comparing theories 451
Combining theories 452
How individual differences theory is debated
and applied to demonstrate its usefulness within
the psychology of human experience 454
Final comments 455
Summary 456
Connecting up 456
Critical thinking 456
Going further 457
Film and literature 457
18 Optimism 458
Key themes 458
Learning outcomes 458
Introduction 459
Learned optimism – explanatory style 461
Learned helplessness versus learned optimism 461
The ABC format 463
Distraction and disputation 463
Dispositional optimism 464
The Life Orientation Test: a measure of
dispositional optimism 465
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Optimism and well-being 465
Coping and appraisals 465
Benefits of optimism and well-being 466
Optimism: a cloud in the silver lining? 469
Situational optimism 469
Hope 471
Benefits of hope 472
Measurement of hope 474
A consideration of false hope 474
Optimism versus ‘positive thinking’ 475
Final comments 477
Summary 477
Connecting up 478
Critical thinking 478
Going further 479
Film and literature 480
19 Irrational Beliefs 482
Key themes 482
Learning outcomes 482
Introduction 483
The basic theory of Rational-Emotive Behaviour
Therapy (REBT) 484
The ABCs of human disturbance 484
‘Must-urbatory’ thinking and disturbance 487
Irrational beliefs and mental health 490
Irrational beliefs and individual differences 491
Issues with irrational beliefs that need to be
considered and addressed 491
The case for and against religion 492
The case for and against luck: the importance
of belief in good luck 496
Superstitious beliefs 498
Final comments 499
Summary 500
Connecting up 500
Critical thinking 501
Going further 501
Film and literature 502
20 Embarrassment, Shyness and
Social Anxiety 504
Key themes 504
Learning outcomes 504
Introduction 505
Introducing social anxieties and social
anxiety disorder 506
What exactly is social anxiety disorder? 506
General symptoms, prevalence and conceptions
of social anxiety disorder 507
Definitions and diagnosis of social anxiety
disorder 508
What causes social anxiety disorder? 510
Shyness 512
What is shyness? 513
The consequences of shyness 514
State versus trait shyness 515
State shyness 516
Trait shyness 516
Shyness and personality 516
Shyness, genetics and behavioural inhibition 517
Fearful and self-conscious shyness 518
Self-conscious shyness and attribution style 518
Shyness and culture 519
Embarrassment 520
Four theories of embarrassment 521
Re-evaluation of the embarrassment models 522
Categorisation of embarrassing situations 523
Embarrassment, measurement and personality 524
Final comments 525
Summary 525
Connecting up 525
Critical thinking 526
Going further 527
Film and literature 527
21 Interpersonal Relationships 528
Key themes 528
Learning outcomes 528
Introduction 529
Interpersonal attraction 529
Theories of interpersonal attraction 530
Fatal attraction 531
Love styles 532
The triangular theory of love 532
Love styles (or the colours of love) 534
Individual and group differences in love styles 536
Romantic love and attachment styles 537
Relationship dissolution 539
The investment model 540
How individuals initiate the end of a relationship 541
How individuals react when the other person
initiates the end of the relationship 543
Introducing forgiveness 545
What is forgiveness? 545
Models of the forgiveness process 546
The Enright model of forgiveness 546
The Worthington (pyramidal) model 549
Attachment and forgiveness 551
Forgiveness and personality 553
Final comments 554
Summary 554
Connecting up 555
Critical thinking 555
Going further 556
Film and literature 557
22 Social Attitudes 558
Key themes 558
Learning outcomes 558
Introduction 559
Right-wing authoritarianism, conservatism and
social dominance 559
Authoritarianism 560
Conservatism 561
Social dominance orientation 565
CONTENTS xiii
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Right-wing attitudes and personality 568
Right-wing attitudes and Eysenck’s theory
of personality 568
Five-factor theory of personality and conservatism 569
Critical consideration of right-wing attitudes theory 570
Religion 572
Dimensions of religiosity 572
Religion and mental health 575
Religion and personality 577
Religion, personality, coping and mental health 578
Critical review 580
Final comments 581
Summary 581
Connecting up 581
Critical thinking 582
Going further 582
Film and literature 583
23 Well-being and Personality Disorders 584
Key themes 584
Learning outcomes 584
Introduction 585
The structure and measurement of well-being 585
Circumplex Theory of Affect: the structure of mood 585
Subjective and psychological well-being 587
Personality, mood and well-being 592
Personality disorders 593
General criteria for personality disorders:
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorder (DSM)–IV. 594
Personality disorders: Cluster A: paranoid,
schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders 596
Personality disorders: Cluster B: antisocial, borderline,
histrionic and narcissistic personality disorders 598
Personality disorders: Cluster C: avoidant,
dependent and obsessive-compulsive
personality disorders 600
Genetic, biological and environmental influences
on personality disorders 602
Five-factor correlates of personality disorders 606
Issues with the conceptualisation and
categorisation of personality disorders 606
Final comments 608
Summary 610
Connecting up 612
Critical thinking 612
Going further 612
Film and literature 613
24 Individual Differences in
Health and Illness 614
Key themes 614
Learning outcomes 614
Introduction 615
Defining health 616
Personality, health and illness: how might
they be linked? 617
Researching the links between personality,
health and illness 619
Type A and Type B personality 619
Measurement of Type A/B personality 620
Research on Type A/B personality 620
Further psychological research on Type A personality 622
Type D personality 622
Individual differences in the reaction to physical illness 623
Conceptualising stress 624
Depression 626
Anxiety defined 627
Concepts especially relevant to health
psychology covered in previous chapters 628
Locus of control 628
Self-efficacy 629
Optimism 629
Intelligence 630
Expanding definitions of health and well-being 630
Personality and well-being: the positive
psychology approach 630
Final comments 632
Summary 632
Connecting up 633
Critical thinking 633
Going further 634
Film and literature 635
25 An introduction to Psychometric Testing 636
Key themes 636
Learning outcomes 636
Introduction 637
Types and uses of psychometric tests 637
Developing a psychometric test 638
Developing items for a psychometric test 638
Writing items for a psychometric test 639
Clarity of questions 640
Leading questions 641
Embarrassing questions 642
Hypothetical questions 643
Questions with reverse wording 643
Response formats 644
Instructions 645
Collecting the data 646
Reliability 647
Internal reliability (internal consistency) 648
Using internal reliability to select items 649
Test–retest reliability (reliability over time) 652
Validity 653
Advanced techniques in psychometric
evaluation: factor analysis 660
Factor analysis 660
Exploratory factor analysis 662
Confirmatory factor analysis 668
The International Personality Item Pool and
the Higher Education Academy in
Psychology practicals webpage 673
Final comments 673
Summary 673
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Connecting up 674
Critical thinking 674
Going further 675
Film and literature 675
Glossary G1
References R1
Index I1
THE FOLLOWING ADDITIONAL MATERIAL
CAN BE FOUND ON THE WEBSITE
(www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby)
26 Academic Argument and Thinking 678
Key themes 678
Learning outcomes 678
Introduction 679
The structure of arguments: premises
and conclusions 679
Deductive versus inductive arguments 680
Fallacies in arguments 681
Fallacies of the undistributed middle 681
The fallacy of affirming the consequent 682
Argument directed at the person (argumentum
ad hominem, ‘argument directed at the man’) 682
Appealing to ignorance or absence of fact
(argumentum ad ignorantiam, ‘argument
to ignorance’) 683
Appeal to popular beliefs (argumentum ad
populum, ‘argument to the people’) 683
Appeal to emotion (argumentum ad
misericordiam, ‘argument to pity’) 683
False dilemma 684
Comparing populations 684
Summary 685
Going further 685
27 Statistical Terms 686
Key themes 686
Learning outcomes 686
Introduction 687
Tests of association 687
Correlation coefficients 687
Factor analysis 688
Multiple regression 691
Tests of difference 692
Tests of difference for two sets of scores 692
Tests of difference for more than two sets of scores 692
Meta-analysis 693
Effect size 693
Summary 694
Going further 695
28 Research Ethics 696
Key themes 696
Learning outcomes 696
Introduction 697
What do we mean by research ethics? 697
Why do we need ethical codes? 697
Basic principles for ethical research 697
Research studies have to comply with all legal
requirements 697
Research participants 698
NHS and social services/social care research 700
Ethical principles for conducting research
with human participants (The British
Psychological Society) 700
Summary 703
Going further 703
CONTENTS xv
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xvi CONTENTS
Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby to find valuable online resources:
Companion Website for students
Three additional web-only chapters to help develop your understanding of and skills in academic
argument and thinking, statistical terms and research ethics
Multiple choice questions on each chapter to help test your learning
Additional essay questions to give you practice at exam-style questions
Advanced Reading section containing a variety of current research papers that enable you to key
into current issues and gain ideas for your independent projects
Annotated links to relevant sites on the web
For instructors
PowerPoint slides of section summaries and Figures in the book
Online testbank of over 400 questions
Also:
The Companion Website provides the following features:
Search tool to help locate specific items of content
E-mail results and profile tools to send results of quizzes to instructors
For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales representative or visit
www.pearsoned.co.uk/maltby
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